Dfyjkt

In toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD₅₀ (abbreviation for "lethal dose, 50%"), LC₅₀ (lethal concentration, 50%) or LCt₅₀ is a measure of the lethal dose of a toxin, radiation, or pathogen. The value of LD₅₀ for a substance is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration. LD₅₀ figures are frequently used as a general indicator of a substance's acute toxicity. A lower LD₅₀ is indicative of increased toxicity.

The test was created by J.W. Trevan in 1927.^[1] The term semilethal dose is occasionally used in the same sense, in particular with translations of foreign language text, but can also refer to a sublethal dose. LD₅₀ is usually determined by tests on animals such as laboratory mice.
In 2011, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved alternative methods to LD₅₀ for testing the cosmetic drug Botox without animal tests.^[2]^[3]

Conventions

The LD₅₀ is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, typically as milligrams of substance per kilogram of body mass, sometimes also stated as nanograms (suitable for botulinum), micrograms, or grams (suitable for paracetamol) per kilogram. Stating it this way allows the relative toxicity of different substances to be compared, and normalizes for the variation in the size of the animals exposed (although toxicity does not always scale simply with body mass). For substances in the environment, such as poisonous vapors or substances in water that are toxic to fish, the concentration in the environment (per cubic metre or per litre) is used, giving a value of LC₅₀. But in this case, the exposure time is important (see below).

The choice of 50% lethality as a benchmark avoids the potential for ambiguity of making measurements in the extremes and reduces the amount of testing required. However, this also means that LD₅₀ is not the lethal dose for all subjects; some may be killed by much less, while others survive doses far higher than the LD₅₀. Measures such as "LD₁" and "LD₉₉" (dosage required to kill 1% or 99%, respectively, of the test population) are occasionally used for specific purposes.^[4]

Lethal dosage often varies depending on the method of administration; for instance, many substances are less toxic when administered orally than when intravenously administered. For this reason, LD₅₀ figures are often qualified with the mode of administration, e.g., "LD₅₀ i.v."

The related quantities LD₅₀/30 or LD₅₀/60 are used to refer to a dose that without treatment will be lethal to 50% of the population within (respectively) 30 or 60 days. These measures are used more commonly within Radiation Health Physics, as survival beyond 60 days usually results in recovery.

A comparable measurement is LCt₅₀, which relates to lethal dosage from exposure, where C is concentration and t is time. It is often expressed in terms of mg-min/m³. ICt₅₀ is the dose that will cause incapacitation rather than death. These measures are commonly used to indicate the comparative efficacy of chemical warfare agents, and dosages are typically qualified by rates of breathing (e.g., resting = 10 l/min) for inhalation, or degree of clothing for skin penetration. The concept of Ct was first proposed by Fritz Haber and is sometimes referred to as Haber's Law, which assumes that exposure to 1 minute of 100 mg/m³ is equivalent to 10 minutes of 10 mg/m³ (1 × 100 = 100, as does 10 × 10 = 100).

Some chemicals, such as hydrogen cyanide, are rapidly detoxified by the human body, and do not follow Haber's Law. So, in these cases, the lethal concentration may be given simply as LC₅₀ and qualified by a duration of exposure (e.g., 10 minutes). The Material Safety Data Sheets for toxic substances frequently use this form of the term even if the substance does follow Haber's Law.

For disease-causing organisms, there is also a measure known as the median infective dose and dosage. The median infective dose (ID₅₀) is the number of organisms received by a person or test animal qualified by the route of administration (e.g., 1,200 org/man per oral). Because of the difficulties in counting actual organisms in a dose, infective doses may be expressed in terms of biological assay, such as the number of LD₅₀'s to some test animal. In biological warfare infective dosage is the number of infective doses per cubic metre of air times the number of minutes of exposure (e.g., ICt₅₀ is 100 medium doses - min/m³).

Limitation

As a measure of toxicity, LD₅₀ is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration.^[5]

There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans (cf. paracetamol toxicity), and vice versa. For example, chocolate, comparatively harmless to humans, is known to be toxic to many animals. When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD₅₀ results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators on mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant. While most mammals have a very similar physiology, LD₅₀ results may or may not have equal bearing upon every mammal species, such as humans, etc.

Examples

Note: Comparing substances (especially drugs) to each other by LD₅₀ can be misleading in many cases due (in part) to differences in effective dose (ED₅₀). Therefore, it is more useful to compare such substances by therapeutic index, which is simply the ratio of LD₅₀ to ED₅₀.^{[citation needed]}

The following examples are listed in reference to LD₅₀ values, in descending order, and accompanied by LC₅₀ values, bracketed, when appropriate.

Substance	Animal, Route	LD₅₀ LC₅₀	LD₅₀ : g/kg LC₅₀ : g/L standardized	Reference
Water	rat, oral	>90,000 mg/kg	>90	^[6]
Sucrose (table sugar)	rat, oral	29,700 mg/kg	29.7	^[7]
Glucose (blood sugar)	rat, oral	25,800 mg/kg	25.8	^[8]
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)	rat, oral	16,600 mg/kg	16.6	^[9]
Stevioside (from stevia)	mice and rats, oral	>15,000 mg/kg	>15	^[10]
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	rat, oral	11,900 mg/kg	11.9	^[11]
Glyphosate (isopropylamine salt of)	rat, oral	10,537 mg/kg	10.537	^[12]
Lactose (milk sugar)	rat, oral	>10,000 mg/kg	>10	^[13]
Aspartame	mice, oral	>10,000 mg/kg	>10	^[14]
Urea	rat, oral	8,471 mg/kg	8.471	^[15]
Cyanuric acid	rat, oral	7,700 mg/kg	7.7	^[16]
Cadmium sulfide	rat, oral	7,080 mg/kg	7.08	^[17]
Ethanol (Grain alcohol)	rat, oral	7,060 mg/kg	7.06	^[18]
Sodium isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA, metabolite of sarin)	rat, oral	6,860 mg/kg	6.86	^[19]
Melamine	rat, oral	6,000 mg/kg	6	^[16]
Methanol	rat, oral	5,628 mg/kg	5.628	^[20]
Taurine	rat, oral	>5,000 mg/kg	>5	^[21]
Melamine cyanurate	rat, oral	4,100 mg/kg	4.1	^[16]
Fructose (fruit sugar)	rat, oral	4,000 mg/kg	4	^[22]
Sodium molybdate	rat, oral	4,000 mg/kg	4	^[23]
Sodium chloride (table salt)	rat, oral	3,000 mg/kg	3	^[24]
Paracetamol (acetaminophen)	mouse, oral	338 mg/kg	0.338	^[25]
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)	rat, oral	1270 mg/kg	1.27	^[26]
Cannabidiol (CBD)	rat, oral	980 mg/kg	0.98	^[27]
Metallic Arsenic	rat, oral	763 mg/kg	0.763	^[28]
Ibuprofen	rat, oral	636 mg/kg	0.636	^[29]
Formaldehyde	rat, oral	600–800 mg/kg	0.6	^[30]
Solanine main alkaloid in the several plants in Solanaceae amongst them Solanum tuberosum	rat, oral (2.8 mg/kg human, oral)	590 mg/kg	0.590	^[31]
Alkyl dimethyl benzalkonium chloride (ADBAC)	rat, oral fish, immersion aquatic invertebrates, immersion	304.5 mg/kg 0.28 mg/L 0.059 mg/L	0.3045 0.00028 0.000059	^[32]
Coumarin (benzopyrone, from Cinnamomum aromaticum and other plants)	rat, oral	293 mg/kg	0.293	^[33]
Psilocybin (from magic mushrooms)	mouse, oral	280 mg/kg	0.280	^[34]
Hydrochloric acid	rat, oral	238–277 mg/kg	0.238	^[35]
Ketamine	rat, intraperitoneal	229 mg/kg	0.229	^[36]
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)	rat, oral	200 mg/kg	0.2	^[37]
Caffeine	rat, oral	192 mg/kg	0.192	^[38]
Arsenic trisulfide	rat, oral	185–6,400 mg/kg	0.185–6.4	^[39]
Sodium nitrite	rat, oral	180 mg/kg	0.18	^[40]
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy)	rat, oral	160 mg/kg	0.18	^[41]
Uranyl acetate dihydrate	mouse, oral	136 mg/kg	0.136	^[42]
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)	mouse, oral	135 mg/kg	0.135	^[43]
Uranium	mice, oral	114 mg/kg (estimated)	0.114	^[44]
Bisoprolol	mouse, oral	100 mg/kg	0.1	^[45]
Cocaine	mouse, oral	96 mg/kg	0.096	^[46]
Cobalt(II) chloride	rat, oral	80 mg/kg	0.08	^[47]
Cadmium oxide	rat, oral	72 mg/kg	0.072	^[48]
Thiopental sodium (used in lethal injection)	rat, oral	64 mg/kg	0.064	^[49]
Methamphetamine	rat, intraperitoneal	57 mg/kg	0.057	^[50]
Sodium fluoride	rat, oral	52 mg/kg	0.052	^[51]
Pentaborane	human, oral	<50 mg/kg	<0.05	^[52]
Capsaicin	mouse, oral	47.2 mg/kg	0.0472	^[53]
Mercury(II) chloride	rat, dermal	41 mg/kg	0.041	^[54]
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)	rat, oral	37 mg/kg	0.037	^[55]
Piperidine (from black pepper)	rat, oral	30 mg/kg	0.030	^[56]
Heroin (diamorphine)	mouse, intravenous	21.8 mg/kg	0.0218	^[57]
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)	rat, intravenous	16.5 mg/kg	0.0165	^[58]
Arsenic trioxide	rat, oral	14 mg/kg	0.014	^[59]
Metallic Arsenic	rat, intraperitoneal	13 mg/kg	0.013	^[60]
Nicotine	human, oral mice, oral	6.5–13 mg/kg (estimated) 3.34 mg/kg	0.0065–0.013 0.0034	^[61] ^[62]
Sodium cyanide	rat, oral	6.4 mg/kg	0.0064	^[63]
Hydrogen cyanide	mouse, oral	3.7 mg/kg	0.0037	^[64]
Chlorotoxin (CTX, from scorpions)	mice	4.3 mg/kg	0.0043	^[65]
Carfentanil	rat, intravenous	3.39 mg/kg	0.00339	^[66]
White phosphorus	rat, oral	3.03 mg/kg	0.00303	^[67]
Strychnine	human, oral	1–2 mg/kg (estimated)	0.001–0.002	^[68]
Cantharidin (from blister beetles)	human, oral	500 µg/kg	0.0005
Aflatoxin B1 (from Aspergillus flavus mold)	rat, oral	480 µg/kg	0.00048	^[69]
Plutonium	dog, intravenous	320 µg/kg	0.00032	^[70]
Amatoxin (from Amanita phalloides mushrooms)	rat	300-700 µg/kg	0.0007	^[71]
Tetrodotoxin (TTX, from blue-ringed octopus)	mice, oral	334 µg/kg	0.000334	^[72]
Fentanyl	monkey	300 µg/kg	0.0003	^[73]
Bufotoxin (from Bufo toads)	cat, intravenous	300 µg/kg	0.0003	^[74]
Sarin	mouse, subcutaneous injection	172 µg/kg	0.000172	^[75]
Robustoxin (from Sydney funnel-web spider)	mice	150 µg/kg	0.000150	^[76]
VX	human, oral, inhalation, absorption through skin/eyes	140 µg/kg (estimated)	0.00014	^[77]
Venom of the Brazilian wandering spider	rat, subcutaneous	134 µg/kg	0.000134	^[78]
Aconitine main alkaloid in Aconitum napellus and related species	rat, intraveneous	80 µg/kg	0.000080	^[79]
Venom of the Inland Taipan (Australian snake)	rat, subcutaneous	25 µg/kg	0.000025	^[80]
Ricin (from castor oil plant)	rat, intraperitoneal rat, oral	22 μg/kg 20–30 mg/kg	0.000022 0.02	^[81]
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD, in Agent Orange)	rat, oral	20 µg/kg	0.00002
CrTX-A (from box jellyfish venom)	crayfish, intraperitoneal	5 µg/kg	0.000005	^[82]
Latrotoxin (from widow spider venom)	mice	4.3 µg/kg	0.0000043	^[83]
Batrachotoxin (from poison dart frog)	human, sub-cutaneous injection	2–7 µg/kg (estimated)	0.000002	^[84]
Abrin (from rosary pea)	mice, intravenously human, inhalation human, oral	0.7 µg/kg 3.3 µg/kg 10–1000 µg/kg	0.0000007 0.0000033 0.00001–0.001
Maitotoxin (from ciguateric fish)	mouse, intraperitoneal	130 ng/kg	0.00000013	^[85]
Polonium-210	human, inhalation	10 ng/kg (estimated)	0.00000001	^[86]
Diphtheria toxin	mice	10 ng/kg	0.00000001	^[87]
Shiga toxin (from dysentery)	mice	2 ng/kg	0.000000002	^[87]
Tetanospasmin (tetanus toxin)	mice	2 ng/kg	0.000000002	^[87]
Botulinum toxin (Botox)	human, oral, injection, inhalation	1 ng/kg (estimated)	0.000000001	^[88]
Ionizing radiation	human, irradiation	5 Gy		^[89]

Animal rights concerns

Animal-rights and animal-welfare groups, such as Animal Rights International,^[90] have campaigned against LD₅₀ testing on animals. Several countries, including the UK, have taken steps to ban the oral LD₅₀, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) abolished the requirement for the oral test in 2001 (see Test Guideline 401, Trends in Pharmacological Sciences Vol 22, February 22, 2001).

References

^ Safety, Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and. "What is a LD50 and LC50? : OSH Answers". www.ccohs.ca..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em

^
"Allergan Receives FDA Approval for First-of-Its-Kind, Fully in vitro, Cell-Based Assay for BOTOX® and BOTOX® Cosmetic (onabotulinumtoxinA)". Allergan Web site. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 2012-08-15.

^
"In U.S., Few Alternatives To Testing On Animals". Washington Post. 12 April 2008. Retrieved 2011-06-26.

^ REGISTRY OF TOXIC EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (RTECS)
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE RTECS Archived 2013-05-16 at the Wayback Machine

^ Ernest Hodgson (2004). A Textbook of Modern Toxicology. Wiley-Interscience (3rd ed.).^{[page needed]}

^ "Material Safety Data Sheet Water MSDS". Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD₅₀ verification. Archived from the original on 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-05-09.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sucrose". ox.ac.uk.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for glucose" (PDF). utoronto.ca.

^ Walker R, Lupien JR (April 2000). "The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (4S Suppl): 1049S–52S. doi:10.1093/jn/130.4.1049S. PMID 10736380.

^ Toskulkao C, Chaturat L, Temcharoen P, Glinsukon T (1997). "Acute toxicity of stevioside, a natural sweetener, and its metabolite, steviol, in several animal species". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 20 (1–2): 31–44. doi:10.3109/01480549709011077. PMID 9183561.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid". Oxford University. 2005-10-09. Archived from the original on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-02-21.

^ "PubChem - Glyphosate-isopropylammonium". Retrieved 2019-01-17.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for Lactose" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-03. Retrieved 2016-12-31.

^ https://www.spectrumchemical.com/MSDS/A6051.pdf

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for urea". 2015-03-06. Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD₅₀ verification. Archived from the original on 2015-03-01. Retrieved 2015-03-06.

^ ^a^b^c A.A. Babayan, A.V.Aleksandryan, "Toxicological characteristics of melamine cyanurate, melamine and cyanuric acid", Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Klinicheskoi Meditsiny, Vol.25, 345–9 (1985). Original article in Russian.

^ Advanced Search – Alfa Aesar – A Johnson Matthey Company. Alfa.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for ethyl alcohol". ox.ac.uk.

^ Mecler, Francis J. (May 1981). Mammalian Toxological Evaluation of DIMP and DCBP (Phase 3 – IMPA) (Final report ed.). Litton Bionetics, Inc. The oral LD50 values for the test material, IMPA, were 7650 and 6070 mg/kg for male and female rats, respectively.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for methanol" (PDF). sensorcleaning.com.

^ "Safety data for taurine" (PDF). scbt.com.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for fructose". sciencelab.com. Archived from the original on 2017-07-02. Retrieved 2016-12-31.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium molybdate". ox.ac.uk.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium chloride". ox.ac.uk.
^{[permanent dead link]}

^ Safety (MSDS) data for paracetamol

^ Rosenkrantz, Harris; Heyman, Irwin A.; Braude, Monique C. (1974). "Inhalation, parenteral and oral LD50 values of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Fischer rats". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 28 (1): 18–27. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(74)90126-4. PMID 4852457.

^ "MSDS of CBD" (PDF). chemblink.com.

^ [1]^{[dead link]}

^ "IBUPROFEN - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.

^ "Formaldehyde SIDS Initial Assessment Report" (PDF). inchem.org.

^ "SOLANINE - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.

^ Frank T. Sanders, ed. (August 2006). Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Alkyl Dimethyl Benzyl Ammonium Chloride (ADBAC) (PDF) (Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. p. 114. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-24. Retrieved 2009-03-31.

^ Coumarin Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine

^ Rumack, Barry H.; Spoerke, David G. (27 September 1994). Handbook of Mushroom Poisoning: Diagnosis and Treatment. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849301940 – via Google Books.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrochloric acid". fishersci.com.

^ "Ketamine" (PDF). nih.gov.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for acetylsalicylic acid". ox.ac.uk.

^ https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/sid/0000302272^{[permanent dead link]}

^ "Material Safety Data Sheet – Spent Metal Catalyst" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium nitrite". ox.ac.uk.

^ Gable RS (September 2004). "Acute toxic effects of club drugs". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 36 (3): 303–13. doi:10.1080/02791072.2004.10400031. PMID 15559678.

^ "Chemical toxicity of uranium" (PDF). who.int.

^ Hayes WJ (21 December 2013) [1959]. "Pharmacology and toxicology of DDT". In Müller P, Simmons SW. DDT: The Insecticide Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and Its Significance / Das Insektizid Dichlordiphenyltrichloräthan und Seine Bedeutung: Human and Veterinary Medicine. 2. Springer-Verlag. pp. 9–247. ISBN 978-3-0348-6809-9.

^ http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/pub_meet/en/Depluranium4.pdf

^ "Bisoprolol". www.drugbank.ca.

^ "Cocaine". www.drugbank.ca.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for cobalt (II) chloride". ox.ac.uk.

^ Safety (MSDS) data for cadmium oxide

^ Pubchem. "Thiopental sodium". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

^ Kiyatkin EA, Sharma HS (2009). Acute methamphetamine intoxication: brain hyperthermia, blood-brain barrier, brain edema, and morphological cell abnormalities. Int Rev Neurobiol. International Review of Neurobiology. 88. pp. 65–100. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(09)88004-5. ISBN 9780123745040. PMC 3145326. PMID 19897075.

^ "SODIUM FLUORIDE". hazard.com.

^ "Pentaborane chemical and safety data" (PDF). noaa.gov.

^ "Capsaicin Material Safety Data Sheet". sciencelab.com. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

^ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/DisplayMSDSContent.doc

^ "MSDS for cholecalciferol crystalline" (PDF). hmdb.ca.

^ "MSDS for piperidine (pepper)". fishersci.com.

^ "Diamorphine (PIM 261F, French)". www.inchem.org.

^ Erowid LSD (Acid) Vault : Fatalities / Deaths. Erowid.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for arsenic trioxide". ox.ac.uk.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for metallic arsenic". ox.ac.uk.

^ Mayer B (January 2014). "How much nicotine kills a human? Tracing back the generally accepted lethal dose to dubious self-experiments in the nineteenth century". Archives of Toxicology. 88 (1): 5–7. doi:10.1007/s00204-013-1127-0. PMC 3880486. PMID 24091634.

^ (PDF) http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9926222. Missing or empty |title= (help)

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium cyanide". ox.ac.uk.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrogen cyanide" (PDF). orica.com.

^ "Chlorotoxin: A Helpful Natural Scorpion Peptide to Diagnose Glioma and Fight Tumor Invasion".

^ "Critical Review Carfentanil" (PDF). Retrieved 2019-01-31.

^ "Hexachloroethane" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-03.

^ INCHEM: Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations: Strychnine.

^ "Safety (MSDS) data for aflatoxin B1". ox.ac.uk.
^{[permanent dead link]}

^ George L. Voelz and Ileana G. Buican (2000). "Plutonium and Health — How great is the risk?" (PDF). Los Alamos Science (26): 74–89.

^ Kastin, Abba; Kastin, Abba J. (28 April 2011). Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080463797 – via Google Books.

^ "Material Safety Data Sheet Tetrodotoxin ACC# 01139". Acros Organics N.V.

^ "Fentanyl". www.drugbank.ca.

^ "nih.gov Datasheet for Bufotoxin".

^ Inns RH, Tuckwell NJ, Bright JE, Marrs TC (July 1990). "Histochemical demonstration of calcium accumulation in muscle fibres after experimental organophosphate poisoning". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 9 (4): 245–50. doi:10.1177/096032719000900407. PMID 2390321.

^ Sheumack DD, Baldo BA, Carroll PR, Hampson F, Howden ME, Skorulis A (1984). "A comparative study of properties and toxic constituents of funnel web spider (Atrax) venoms". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. C, Comparative Pharmacology and Toxicology. 78 (1): 55–68. doi:10.1016/0742-8413(84)90048-3. PMID 6146485.

^ Munro, N. (Jan 1994). "Toxicity of the organophosphate chemical warfare agents GA, GB, and VX: implications for public protection". Environmental Health Perspectives. 102 (1): 18–38. doi:10.1289/ehp.9410218. PMC 1567233. PMID 9719666.

^ Venomous Animals and their Venoms, vol. III, ed. Wolfgang Bücherl and Eleanor Buckley

^ "ACONITINE - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.

^ LD50 for various snakes Archived 2012-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. Seanthomas.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

^ EFSA – Scientific Opinion of the CONTAM Panel: Ricin (from Ricinus communis) as undesirable substances in animal feed [1] - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. Efsa.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

^ Nagai H (2003). "Recent Progress in Jellyfish Toxin Study". Journal of Health Science. 49 (5): 337–340. doi:10.1248/jhs.49.337. ISSN 1344-9702.

^ http://biology.unm.edu/toolson/biotox/presentations_2013/ALPHA-LATROTOXIN%20POWERPOINT.pptx

^ "Brief Review of Natural Nonprotein Neurotoxins". asanltr.com.

^ Yokoyama A, Murata M, Oshima Y, Iwashita T, Yasumoto T (August 1988). "Some chemical properties of maitotoxin, a putative calcium channel agonist isolated from a marine dinoflagellate". Journal of Biochemistry. 104 (2): 184–7. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a122438. PMID 3182760.

^ Topic 2 Toxic Chemicals and Toxic Effects Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine

^ ^a^b^c http://biology.unm.edu/toolson/biotox/representative_LD50_values.pdf

^ Fleming DO, Hunt DL (2000). Biological Safety: principles and practices. Washington, DC: ASM Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-1-55581-180-8.

^ Koelzer, Winfried (2013). "Lethal dose". www.euronuclear.org. Retrieved 2018-09-15.

^ Thirty-Two Years of Measurable Change Archived 2007-02-11 at the Wayback Machine

External links

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

Lipnick RL, Cotruvo JA, Hill RN, Bruce RD, Stitzel KA, Walker AP, Chu I, Goddard M, Segal L, Springer JA (March 1995). "Comparison of the up-and-down, conventional LD50, and fixed-dose acute toxicity procedures". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 33 (3): 223–31. doi:10.1016/0278-6915(94)00136-C. PMID 7896233.

[1] Safety, Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and. "What is a LD50 and LC50? : OSH Answers". www.ccohs.ca..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em

[2] 
"Allergan Receives FDA Approval for First-of-Its-Kind, Fully in vitro, Cell-Based Assay for BOTOX® and BOTOX® Cosmetic (onabotulinumtoxinA)". Allergan Web site. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 2012-08-15.

[3] 
"In U.S., Few Alternatives To Testing On Animals". Washington Post. 12 April 2008. Retrieved 2011-06-26.

[4] REGISTRY OF TOXIC EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (RTECS)
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE RTECS Archived 2013-05-16 at the Wayback Machine

[ReferenceA-5] Ernest Hodgson (2004). A Textbook of Modern Toxicology. Wiley-Interscience (3rd ed.).^{[page needed]}

[6] "Material Safety Data Sheet Water MSDS". Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD₅₀ verification. Archived from the original on 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-05-09.

[7] "Safety (MSDS) data for sucrose". ox.ac.uk.

[8] "Safety (MSDS) data for glucose" (PDF). utoronto.ca.

[Walker00-9] Walker R, Lupien JR (April 2000). "The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (4S Suppl): 1049S–52S. doi:10.1093/jn/130.4.1049S. PMID 10736380.

[10] Toskulkao C, Chaturat L, Temcharoen P, Glinsukon T (1997). "Acute toxicity of stevioside, a natural sweetener, and its metabolite, steviol, in several animal species". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 20 (1–2): 31–44. doi:10.3109/01480549709011077. PMID 9183561.

[11] "Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid". Oxford University. 2005-10-09. Archived from the original on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-02-21.

[12] "PubChem - Glyphosate-isopropylammonium". Retrieved 2019-01-17.

[13] "Safety (MSDS) data for Lactose" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-03. Retrieved 2016-12-31.

[14] ttps://www.spectrumchemical.com/MSDS/A6051.pdf

[15] "Safety (MSDS) data for urea". 2015-03-06. Section 11: Toxicological Information for the LD₅₀ verification. Archived from the original on 2015-03-01. Retrieved 2015-03-06.

[Babayan-16] A.A. Babayan, A.V.Aleksandryan, "Toxicological characteristics of melamine cyanurate, melamine and cyanuric acid", Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Klinicheskoi Meditsiny, Vol.25, 345–9 (1985). Original article in Russian.

[17] Advanced Search – Alfa Aesar – A Johnson Matthey Company. Alfa.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

[18] "Safety (MSDS) data for ethyl alcohol". ox.ac.uk.

[19] Mecler, Francis J. (May 1981). Mammalian Toxological Evaluation of DIMP and DCBP (Phase 3 – IMPA) (Final report ed.). Litton Bionetics, Inc. The oral LD50 values for the test material, IMPA, were 7650 and 6070 mg/kg for male and female rats, respectively.

[20] "Safety (MSDS) data for methanol" (PDF). sensorcleaning.com.

[21] "Safety data for taurine" (PDF). scbt.com.

[22] "Safety (MSDS) data for fructose". sciencelab.com. Archived from the original on 2017-07-02. Retrieved 2016-12-31.

[23] "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium molybdate". ox.ac.uk.

[24] "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium chloride". ox.ac.uk.
^{[permanent dead link]}

[25] Safety (MSDS) data for paracetamol

[26] Rosenkrantz, Harris; Heyman, Irwin A.; Braude, Monique C. (1974). "Inhalation, parenteral and oral LD50 values of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Fischer rats". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 28 (1): 18–27. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(74)90126-4. PMID 4852457.

[27] "MSDS of CBD" (PDF). chemblink.com.

[28] [1]^{[dead link]}

[29] "IBUPROFEN - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.

[30] "Formaldehyde SIDS Initial Assessment Report" (PDF). inchem.org.

[31] "SOLANINE - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.

[epaRED-32] Frank T. Sanders, ed. (August 2006). Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Alkyl Dimethyl Benzyl Ammonium Chloride (ADBAC) (PDF) (Report). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. p. 114. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-24. Retrieved 2009-03-31.

[33] Coumarin Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine

[34] Rumack, Barry H.; Spoerke, David G. (27 September 1994). Handbook of Mushroom Poisoning: Diagnosis and Treatment. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849301940 – via Google Books.

[35] "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrochloric acid". fishersci.com.

[36] "Ketamine" (PDF). nih.gov.

[37] "Safety (MSDS) data for acetylsalicylic acid". ox.ac.uk.

[38] ttps://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/sid/0000302272^{[permanent dead link]}

[39] "Material Safety Data Sheet – Spent Metal Catalyst" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28.

[40] "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium nitrite". ox.ac.uk.

[41] Gable RS (September 2004). "Acute toxic effects of club drugs". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 36 (3): 303–13. doi:10.1080/02791072.2004.10400031. PMID 15559678.

[42] "Chemical toxicity of uranium" (PDF). who.int.

[43] Hayes WJ (21 December 2013) [1959]. "Pharmacology and toxicology of DDT". In Müller P, Simmons SW. DDT: The Insecticide Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and Its Significance / Das Insektizid Dichlordiphenyltrichloräthan und Seine Bedeutung: Human and Veterinary Medicine. 2. Springer-Verlag. pp. 9–247. ISBN 978-3-0348-6809-9.

[44] ttp://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/pub_meet/en/Depluranium4.pdf

[45] "Bisoprolol". www.drugbank.ca.

[46] "Cocaine". www.drugbank.ca.

[47] "Safety (MSDS) data for cobalt (II) chloride". ox.ac.uk.

[48] Safety (MSDS) data for cadmium oxide

[49] Pubchem. "Thiopental sodium". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

[50] Kiyatkin EA, Sharma HS (2009). Acute methamphetamine intoxication: brain hyperthermia, blood-brain barrier, brain edema, and morphological cell abnormalities. Int Rev Neurobiol. International Review of Neurobiology. 88. pp. 65–100. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(09)88004-5. ISBN 9780123745040. PMC 3145326. PMID 19897075.

[51] "SODIUM FLUORIDE". hazard.com.

[52] "Pentaborane chemical and safety data" (PDF). noaa.gov.

[53] "Capsaicin Material Safety Data Sheet". sciencelab.com. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-07-13.

[54] ttp://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/DisplayMSDSContent.doc

[55] "MSDS for cholecalciferol crystalline" (PDF). hmdb.ca.

[56] "MSDS for piperidine (pepper)". fishersci.com.

[57] "Diamorphine (PIM 261F, French)". www.inchem.org.

[58] Erowid LSD (Acid) Vault : Fatalities / Deaths. Erowid.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

[59] "Safety (MSDS) data for arsenic trioxide". ox.ac.uk.

[60] "Safety (MSDS) data for metallic arsenic". ox.ac.uk.

[61] Mayer B (January 2014). "How much nicotine kills a human? Tracing back the generally accepted lethal dose to dubious self-experiments in the nineteenth century". Archives of Toxicology. 88 (1): 5–7. doi:10.1007/s00204-013-1127-0. PMC 3880486. PMID 24091634.

[62] (PDF) http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9926222. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[63] "Safety (MSDS) data for sodium cyanide". ox.ac.uk.

[64] "Safety (MSDS) data for hydrogen cyanide" (PDF). orica.com.

[65] "Chlorotoxin: A Helpful Natural Scorpion Peptide to Diagnose Glioma and Fight Tumor Invasion".

[66] "Critical Review Carfentanil" (PDF). Retrieved 2019-01-31.

[67] "Hexachloroethane" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-03.

[68] INCHEM: Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations: Strychnine.

[69] "Safety (MSDS) data for aflatoxin B1". ox.ac.uk.
^{[permanent dead link]}

[70] George L. Voelz and Ileana G. Buican (2000). "Plutonium and Health — How great is the risk?" (PDF). Los Alamos Science (26): 74–89.

[71] Kastin, Abba; Kastin, Abba J. (28 April 2011). Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080463797 – via Google Books.

[72] "Material Safety Data Sheet Tetrodotoxin ACC# 01139". Acros Organics N.V.

[73] "Fentanyl". www.drugbank.ca.

[74] "nih.gov Datasheet for Bufotoxin".

[75] Inns RH, Tuckwell NJ, Bright JE, Marrs TC (July 1990). "Histochemical demonstration of calcium accumulation in muscle fibres after experimental organophosphate poisoning". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 9 (4): 245–50. doi:10.1177/096032719000900407. PMID 2390321.

[76] Sheumack DD, Baldo BA, Carroll PR, Hampson F, Howden ME, Skorulis A (1984). "A comparative study of properties and toxic constituents of funnel web spider (Atrax) venoms". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. C, Comparative Pharmacology and Toxicology. 78 (1): 55–68. doi:10.1016/0742-8413(84)90048-3. PMID 6146485.

[77] Munro, N. (Jan 1994). "Toxicity of the organophosphate chemical warfare agents GA, GB, and VX: implications for public protection". Environmental Health Perspectives. 102 (1): 18–38. doi:10.1289/ehp.9410218. PMC 1567233. PMID 9719666.

[78] Venomous Animals and their Venoms, vol. III, ed. Wolfgang Bücherl and Eleanor Buckley

[79] "ACONITINE - National Library of Medicine HSDB Database". toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.

[80] LD50 for various snakes Archived 2012-02-01 at the Wayback Machine. Seanthomas.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

[81] EFSA – Scientific Opinion of the CONTAM Panel: Ricin (from Ricinus communis) as undesirable substances in animal feed [1] - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. Efsa.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.

[82] Nagai H (2003). "Recent Progress in Jellyfish Toxin Study". Journal of Health Science. 49 (5): 337–340. doi:10.1248/jhs.49.337. ISSN 1344-9702.

[83] ttp://biology.unm.edu/toolson/biotox/presentations_2013/ALPHA-LATROTOXIN%20POWERPOINT.pptx

[84] "Brief Review of Natural Nonprotein Neurotoxins". asanltr.com.

[85] Yokoyama A, Murata M, Oshima Y, Iwashita T, Yasumoto T (August 1988). "Some chemical properties of maitotoxin, a putative calcium channel agonist isolated from a marine dinoflagellate". Journal of Biochemistry. 104 (2): 184–7. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a122438. PMID 3182760.

[86] Topic 2 Toxic Chemicals and Toxic Effects Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine

[biology.unm.edu-87] ttp://biology.unm.edu/toolson/biotox/representative_LD50_values.pdf

[88] Fleming DO, Hunt DL (2000). Biological Safety: principles and practices. Washington, DC: ASM Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-1-55581-180-8.

[89] Koelzer, Winfried (2013). "Lethal dose". www.euronuclear.org. Retrieved 2018-09-15.

[90] Thirty-Two Years of Measurable Change Archived 2007-02-11 at the Wayback Machine

v t e Concepts in pharmacology
Pharmacokinetics	(L)ADME: (Liberation) Absorption Distribution Metabolism Excretion (Clearance) Loading dose Volume of distribution (Initial) Rate of infusion Compartment Bioequivalence Bioavailability Onset of action Biological half-life Plasma protein binding
Pharmacodynamics	Mechanism of action Mode of action Toxicity (Neurotoxicology) Dose–response relationship (Efficacy, Potency) Therapeutic index (Median lethal dose, Effective dose) Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics: Minimum inhibitory concentration (Bacteriostatic) Minimum bactericidal concentration (Bactericide)
Agonism and antagonism	Agonist: Inverse agonist Endogenous agonist Irreversible agonist Partial agonist Superagonist Physiological agonist Antagonist: Competitive antagonist Irreversible antagonist Physiological antagonist Other: Binding Affinity Binding selectivity Functional selectivity
Other	Drug tolerance: Tachyphylaxis Drug resistance: Antibiotic resistance Multiple drug resistance
Drug discovery strategies	Classical pharmacology Reverse pharmacology
Related fields/subfields	Pharmacogenetics Pharmacogenomics Neuropsychopharmacology (Neuropharmacology, Psychopharmacology)

v t e Toxicology
*_Toxinology"> History of poison Toxinology
Fields	Aquatic toxicology Ecotoxicology Occupational toxicology Entomotoxicology Environmental toxicology Forensic toxicology Medical toxicology In vitro toxicology Toxicogenomics
Concepts	Acceptable daily intake Acute toxicity Bioaccumulation Biomagnification Fixed-dose procedure Lethal dose Poison Toxic capacity Toxicant Toxin Toxicity class Venom
Treatments	Activated carbon Antidote Cathartic Chelation therapy Gastric lavage Hemodialysis Hemoperfusion Whole bowel irrigation
Incidents	1858 Bradford sweets poisoning 2007 pet food recalls Bhopal disaster Minamata disease Niigata Minamata disease Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko Seveso disaster Consumption of Tide Pods List of poisonings
Related topics	Biological warfare Carcinogen Food safety Hazard symbol List of extremely hazardous substances Mutagen Occupational safety and health
Category Commons WikiProject

搜尋此網誌

Dfyjkt

Median lethal dose

Contents

Conventions

Limitation

Examples

Animal rights concerns

See also

Other measures of toxicity

Related measures

References

External links

Popular posts from this blog

Crossroads (UK TV series)