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Chileans
Chilenos

Flag of Chile
Total population
c. 18.5 million[a]
Regions with significant populations
Chile        17,574,003[1]
Diaspora total	c. 900,000
Argentina	429,708[2]
United States	113,934[2]
Canada	45,190[2]
Sweden	42,396[2]
Spain	41,939[3]
Australia	33,626[2]
Brazil	28,371[2]
Venezuela	27,106[2]
France	15,782[2]
Germany	10,280[2]
Other countries combined	95,090[2]
Languages
Chilean Spanish
Religion
Roman Catholicism (69.95%) Evangelicalism (9%) Protestantism (6.14%) Irreligious (8.30%) Judaism (0.13%)
Related ethnic groups
Other Latin Americans indigenous peoples in Chile
a. ^ The total population estimation is merely a sum of all the referenced figures in the table and as such might be understated or exaggerated. There were 17.5 million in Chile and another 900,000 in the diaspora worldwide.

Chileans (Spanish: Chilenos) are people identified with the country of Chile, whose connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural. For most Chileans, several or all of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their Chilean identity. Chile is a multilingual and multicultural society, home to people of many different ethnicities and religions. Therefore, many Chileans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, but with citizenship and allegiance to Chile. The overwhelming majority of Chileans are the product of varying degrees of admixture between European ethnic groups (predominantly Spaniards) with Amerindian peoples indigenous to Chile’s modern territory.

Although the historic mestizaje of Europeans and Amerindians is evident across all social strata in the Chilean population, there is a strong correlation between the ratio of a Chilean's European and Amerindian genetic components and his or her socioeconomic situation.^[4][5] There is a marked continuum^[5] existing between the lower classes of a high component of Amerindian ancestry and the upper classes of a predominant component of European ancestry. Indigenous inheritance, whether cultural or genetic, is most pronounced in rural areas and in aspects of culture such as Chilean cuisine and Chilean Spanish. Although post-independence immigrants never made up more than 2% of the population, there are now hundreds of thousands of Chileans with German,^[6] British, French, Croatian, Italian or Palestinian^[7] ancestry, though these have also been mostly miscegenated with other groups within the country.

Though the majority of Chileans reside in Chile, significant communities have been established in multiple countries, most noticeably Argentina,^[8]United States,^[9]Australia and Canada and countries of the European Union. Although small in number, Chilean people also make up a substantial part of the permanent population of Antarctica and the Falkland Islands (see: Chileans in the Falkland Islands).^[10]

Ethnic structure

As in other Latin American countries, in Chile, from the onset of Spanish colonization and settlement, miscegenation or mestizaje was the norm rather than the exception. Today, ethnic and racial self-identities are highly fluid and can differ between persons of the same family, including siblings of the same parentage.^{[citation needed]} It is dictated not only by strict physical appearance, nor more loosely by ancestry (actual or presumed), but by cultural patterns, social class, wealth and access, language, and prevailing biases of the era.^{[citation needed]} These very factors, indeed, lend to the significantly varying ethnic structure figures from one source to the next. Additionally, those various figures refer to different, even if often overlapping, concepts: including racial vs ethnic categories, self-identity vs genetic findings, as well as culturally assigned categories. These concepts should not be confused, and the figures represented in one source might not be corresponding to figures of concepts from another source.

Thus, for instance, UNAM professor of Latin American studies, Francisco Lizcano, in his social research estimates that a predominant 52.7% of the Chilean population can be classified as culturally European, with an estimated 44% as Mestizo.^[11] Other social studies put the total amount of Whites at over 60 percent.^[12] Some publications, such as the CIA World Factbook, state that the entire population consist of a combined 95.4% of "Whites and White-Amerindians", and 4.6% of Amerindians. These figures are based on a national census held in 2002, which classified the population as indigenous and non-indigenous, rather than as White or Mestizo.^[13]

Ancestries and genetics

General genetic ancestries

• 67.9% European; 32.1% Amerindian; (Valenzuela, 1984): Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de salud pública en Chile, fuente: Revista Chilena de Pediatría.^[14][15]


• 64.0% European; 35.0% Amerindian; (Cruz-Coke, 1994): Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile, fuente: Universidad de Chile.^[16]


• 57.2% European; 38.7% Amerindian; 2,5 % African; 1,7 % Asiatic; (Homburger et al, 2015): Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America, fuente: Plos One Genetics.^[17]


• An autosomal DNA study from 2014 found Chile to possess a genepool averaging 51.85% (± 5.44%) European, 44.34% (± 3.9%) Amerindian, and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African DNA.^[18][19] The genetic study was conducted across all regions of Chile, and while it “ratified the preponderance of mestizaje in Chile”,^[20] it also found “the indigenous presence is marked by a curve in the Chilean territory. In the north, between Arica and Coquimbo, and in the south, between La Araucanía and Aysén, the genes of indigenous Amerindians exceeds 50%. Only in the south central regions, Valparaíso and Magallanes does the European component surpass [the Amerindian component].”^[21] However, the majority of Chile’s population is concentrated in the centre regions of the country.

Others genetics topics

In regard to average admixture by social class and regions, a genetic study indicated that the genepool of the average residents of Santiago, which is Chile’s capital and geographic centre, to be 51% European and 49% Amerindian DNA for the lower class, 70% European and 30% Amerindian DNA for the middle class, and 91% European and 9% Amerindian DNA for the upper class.

Cities with a historically higher proportion of European immigration, such as Concepción, in south central Chile, exhibited an average middle class genepool of 75% European and 25% Amerindian DNA, while in Valparaíso the average middle class genepool was 77% European and 23% Amerindian DNA.^[22] By contrast, in southern and northern regions of the country, the Amerindian component surpassed the European component.

Related genetic studies conducted on Santiago’s mtDNA and Y-DNA found a sex bias in the ethnic origin of those sex-specific chromosomes. Thus, across all social classes, an overwhelming 84% of Santiago’s mitochondrial DNA (inherited only from mother to child) is of Amerindian origin, while the Y chromosome (inherited only from father to son) is about 70% of European origin,^[23] and between 6% to 15% Amerindian, depending on the area of the city.^[24]
The results reflect a gender asymmetrical mating pattern to the historic mestizaje of Chile’s founding population.

A public health book from the University of Chile previously stated “30% de blancos o caucásicos; 5% de aborígenes mongoloides y 65% de mestizos”,^[25] that is, 30% of the population of Chile could be classified as white or Caucasoid, those who could be classified as mestizos (visibly of "mixed race") were estimated to amount to a total of 65%, while those who could be classified as Amerindian would comprise the remaining 5%.

On a genotypic (genetic) level, however, persons in all groups, despite their classification by phenotype (appearance) would nonthesless contain admixture, not just the phenotypically mestizos. Thus, in Chile, the three groups, the phenotypically white, mestizo, and Amerindian, would represent a genetic continuum rather than isolates, including the presence of some Amerindian DNA in the phenotypically Caucasoid Chileans, and some European DNA in the phenotypically Amerindian Chileans.

Racial self-perceptions

A 2002 national poll revealed that a slim majority of 51.7% of Chileans stated that they believed that they possessed "indigenous blood". Some 43.4% of respondents said that they believed they had "some" Amerindian ancestry and another 8.3% believed they had "much" Amerindian ancestry, but 40.3% responded that they believed that they had no Amerindian ancestry.^[26] Despite a majority of Chileans acknowledging that they had at least some Amerindian ancestry, if asked, many Chileans would simply self-identify as white.

Thus, in a 2011 Latinobarómetro survey which asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to, a majority of 59% answered "white", while 25% said "mestizo", and 8% self-classified as "indigenous".^[27]

Ethnographic history of Chile

Spaniards, mestizos and indians

Rural population in the 19th century by Claudio Gay

For at least 12,000 years, numerous indigenous peoples settled in central and southern Chile. The predominant Mapuche inhabited these areas up until the Spanish conquest. During the colonial period, troops were sent out to the Americas by the Spanish Crown in order to protect distant colonies. Spanish folk immigrated from all regions of Spain, particularly Andalusia, Extremadura, Basque Country, Asturias, Navarra and Castile. Of the Spanish, many immigrants ultimately settled in Chile after the Mapuche resistance to the conquest.

The government of Agustín de Jáuregui, which ruled around 1777–1778, ordered the first general population census. The census confirmed a total of 259,646 inhabitants at the time, with 73.5% classified as Caucasian, 9.8% as African, 8.6% as Indian, and 7.8% as Mestizo. In 1784, Francisco Hurtado, governor of the province of Chiloé, conducted a population census in Chiloe that totaled 26,703 inhabitants, of which about 64.4% was classified as españoles ("Spaniards", Caucasian and mixed Mestizo people) and 33.5% considered indios ("Indians").

In 1812, the Diocese of Concepción conducted a census to the south of the Maule river; however, this did not include the indigenous population — at that time estimated at 8,000 people — nor the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. It put the total population at 210,567, of which 86.1% was native Spaniards and 10% were Indian, with a remaining 3.7% of African, mulattos, and mestizo descent.^[28] Other estimates in the late 17th century indicate that the population reached a maximum total of 152,000, consisting of 72% whites and mestizos, 18% Indians, and 10% blacks and mulattos.^[29]

For many years, Spanish-descent settlers and religious orders imported African slaves to the country, which in the early 19th century constituted 1.5% of the national population.^[30] Despite this, the Afro-Chilean population was small, reaching a height of only 2,500 — or 0.1% of the total population — during the colonial period.^[31]

In the 18th century, many Spanish civilians (mainly of Basque origin) entered the country, in particular attracted by trade liberalization at the time enacted by the Spanish Crown. In the late 18th century, Basque descendants were estimated to comprise 27% of the total population.^[32] Most of the Basque immigrants initially partook in small businesses, though others attained higher levels of prosperity. Of those, many mixed with the Criollo aristocracy of Castilian origin, who owned much of the land. This resulted in the Castilian-Basque aristocracy, which later came to form the basis of the Chilean ruling class; other Basques also integrated with mestizo population of Castilian origin, that resulted in modern Chilean middle classes. The number of descendants from Basques in Chile are estimated at 10% of the population (1.7 million).^{[33][34][35][36][37][38][39]}

European and neighboring immigrants

After Chile's independence successive waves of Spanish, Italians, Irish, French, Greeks, Germans, British, Dutch, Croats, Russians, Poles, Hungarians, Portuguese and Middle Eastern people immigrated to the country.

A substantial German immigration took place in 1848, laying the foundation for the German-Chilean community. Under a government sponsored programme aimed at colonizing the southern region, the Germans (including German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians and Austrians), colonized the south and have since influenced the cultural and racial composition of the southern provinces of Chile. It is estimated that 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans could have German ancestors.^[40]

About 700,000 Chileans, or 5% of Chile's population, have Arab ancestry.^[41] Of these 500,000 are Palestinian descendants.^{[41][42][43][44][45][46]}

Other historically significant immigrant groups include: Croatians, whose numbers today are estimated at 380,000 persons, about 2.4% of the population.^[47][48] 4.6% of the Chilean population has some Croatian ancestry.^[49] Over 700,000 Chileans, 4.5% of Chile's population, has British (English, Scottish and Welsh) origin.^[50]

Puerto Varas in southern Chile, shows German influence in its architecture.

Between 90,000 and 120,000 Chileans are of Greek origin.^[51] Most live either in the Santiago or Antofagasta areas. Chile is one of the 5 countries with the most Greeks in the world.^[52]
The number of Swiss is about 90,000.^[53] About 5% of the Chilean population has some French ancestry.^[54] 600,000 to 800,000 are Italians. Other European groups are found in smaller numbers.

The European immigrants have transformed the country culturally, economically and politically. European emigration in Chile and to a lesser extent, the arrival from the Middle East during the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries, was the most important in Latin America^[55][56] second to that which occurred in the Atlantic Coast of the Southern Cone (i.e., Argentina and southern Brazil).^[57]

These European ethnic groups have intermarried thereby diluting the distinct cultures, descent and identities of the home countries and fusing them among each other. There has also been intermarriage with the original Basque-Castilian aristocracy of the colonial period and mestizo middle classes. These intermixed cultures form the society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes.^[34] The European have still preserved elements of themselves, therefore they enjoy the original European cultural practices such as the British afternoon tea and biscuits, French casseroles and coffee, German cakes and sausage, and Italian pasta and mineral waters. The cultural influences can also be seen in the architecture of the cities. The Chilean folk culture is not embraced as it is an offshoot of the culture of the Spaniards who settled the country in the colonial period.

Indigenous Chileans

1902 photograph of a Mapuche girl from Concepción, in southern Chile.

With the independence of Chile in the 1810s, Mapuche began to be seen as Chileans by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as a separate people or nation.^[58]

Although indigenous peoples like Mapuche and Aymaras are in some situations contrasted against Chilean people the two demonyms are not mutually exclusive and are rather often used combined. For example, "a Chilean Aymara" can be used to contrast with Aymaras living in Bolivia or Peru.

The 1907 census reported 101,118 Indians, or 3.1% of the total country population. Only those that practiced their native culture or spoke their native language were considered, irrespective of their "racial purity."^[59]

At the 2002 census, people that declared themselves as indigenous amounted to 4.6% of the population (692,192 people); of these, 87.3% declared themselves Mapuche.^[60] as with Chileans of other backgrounds most Mapuche show varying degrees of mixed ancestry.

Some native peoples of Chile disappeared product from acculturation and miscegenation, as is the case of peoples Picunches, Diaguitas and Chonos, whereas a large number of Selknam or Onas disappeared by the extermination carried out by settlers in Tierra del Fuego in the early 20th century. Other factors that contributed to their extinction were diseases brought by Europeans, such as smallpox.

Religion

Culture

The folk culture of Chile has mostly Spanish origins, especially the huaso culture of the central part of the country, as it arose in the colonial period due to cattle ranching. It could therefore be considered an offshoot of Spanish popular culture of the 17th an 18th centuries as are the folk cultures of the rest of Latin America and also, its direct descendants, Andalusian and Castilian folk cultures. The Andalusian forms in the huaso dress is apparent to Europeans and the music and dances show Spanish origins, even though both have been adapted and are distinct from dress, music and dance in Spain today.

The ranches called fundos, where the huasos lived and worked show strong similarity with Spanish vernacular architecture, especially in the canal roofs and the interior courtyards. The fundo is now thought of as traditional Chilean architecture and is associated with the huaso.

As well as the huaso culture of the central part of the country can be seen the German, Chilote, Croatian and Magallanic culture in the south, and the Andean culture in the north.

Chile's Nueva Canción movement in modern Chilean folk culture is adapted from the folk music of the north, not of the brass bands but of the panpipes and quenas. The traditional Chilean folk music of the huasos were also popularised, particularly the tonadas, folk songs sung with a guitar, mainly on the topics of love. Several folk groups who dress in huaso costume became famous nationwide.

The folk culture that is mainly associated with the Chilean national identity is that of the huasos as that is where the Chilean state was formed and it spread northwards and southwards in the late 19th century.

Emigration of Chileans

Emigration of Chileans has decreased during the last decade: It is estimated that 857,781 Chileans live abroad, 50.1% of those being in Argentina (the highest number), 13.3% in the United States, 8.8% in Brazil, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% in Australia, with the rest being scattered in smaller numbers across the globe. Other Chilean refugees settled (not ranked by order of size) in Spain, Mexico, Costa Rica, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, and Italy.

Many pro-Allende refugees in the 1970s fled to East Germany, including president Michelle Bachelet had also lived in Australia.^[63] While anti-Pinochet refugees formed a large expatriate community in Europe and a smaller community in North America (the US and Canada).

Over 100,000 Chileans fleeing from both regimes in the 1970s and 1980s settled in the US, a small number compared to other Latino groups. The highest number settled in Miami, Florida, but smaller enclaves are in Washington, D.C.; New York City; and California (the Los Angeles area - Beverly Hills and Long Beach; and San Francisco - San Mateo County).

Approximately 2,500 Chilean exiles fled to the UK in the early 1970s and by most recent estimates the Chilean British population is in its tens of thousands, and represents a significant proportion of the UK's Latin American community. By far the largest concentration of Chileans can be found in London with significant other communities being Birmingham, Sheffield and the Manchester–Liverpool Metropolitan area.^[64]

Historic emigration took place in the early 19th century when Chilean ranchers went to Mexico after their independence. Thousands of miners from Chile went to California, the U.S. during the 1850s California Gold Rush, as well in other gold rushes in Colorado (1870s) and the Yukon (1890s). Small numbers of Chilean miners also migrated to South Africa and Australia for the same reason.^[65][66]

See also

• Anti-Chilean sentiment


• Chilean American


• Chilean Argentine


• Chilean Australian


• Chilean Brazilian


• Chilean British


• Chilean German


• Chilean Italian


• Chilean Spanish


• Chilean Swedes


• Swiss Chilean


• White Latin American


• Latin Americans

References