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Puruṣārtha


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Puruṣārtha (Sanskrit: पुरुषार्थ) literally means an "object of human pursuit".[1] It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values).[2][3]


All four Purusarthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy.[4][5]Moksha is considered the ultimate ideal of human life.[6] At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.


Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha purusartha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called Nishkam Karma as a possible solution to the tension.[7][8]




Contents





  • 1 Etymology


  • 2 Discussion

    • 2.1 Relative importance between four goals of life


    • 2.2 Tension between four goals of life


    • 2.3 Origins of purusartha theory



  • 3 Purusartha focused literature


  • 4 Ashrama


  • 5 See also


  • 6 References


  • 7 Further reading


  • 8 External links




Etymology[edit]


Puruṣartha (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha (पुरुष) and Artha (अर्थ). Purusha mean "human being", "soul" as well as "universal principle and soul of the universe".[9]Artha in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning".[10] Together, Purusartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit".[1][11]


Alf Hiltebeitel translates Purusartha as "Goals of Man".[12] Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and medieval Indian texts.[11] Olivelle translates it as the "aims of human life".[13]


Purusartha is also referred to as Caturvarga.[14]



Discussion[edit]


Main articles: Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha

Purusartha is a key concept in Hinduism, which holds that every human being has four proper goals that are necessary and sufficient for a fulfilling and happy life,[15]



  • Dharma – signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible,[16] and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living.[17] Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.[17] Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,[18] is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.[18]


  • Artha – signifies the "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in.[19]Artha incorporates wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.[20][21]


  • Kama – signifies desire, wish, passion, emotions, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations.[22]Gavin Flood explains[23] kāma as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation).


  • Moksha – signifies emancipation, liberation or release.[24] In some schools of Hinduism, moksha connotes freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth, in other schools moksha connotes freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization and liberation in this life.[25][26]


Relative importance between four goals of life[edit]


Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma is foremost. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama - profit and pleasure respectively - lead to social chaos.[4] The Gautama Dharmashastra, Apastamba Dharmasutra and Yājñavalkya Smṛti, as examples, all suggest that dharma comes first and is more important than artha and kama.[5]


Kamasutra states the relative value of three goals as follows: artha is more important and should precede kama, while dharma is more important and should precede both kama and artha.[27] Kautiliya's Arthashastra, however, argues that artha is the foundation for the other two. Without prosperity and security in society or at individual level, both moral life and sensuality become difficult. Poverty breeds vice and hate, while prosperity breeds virtues and love, suggested Kautiliya.[4] Kautilya adds that all three are mutually connected, and one should not cease enjoying life, nor virtuous behavior, nor pursuit of wealth creation. Excessive pursuit of any one aspect of life with complete rejection of other two, harms all three including the one excessively pursued.[28] The sastras, states Kane,[29] observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different with age.


Moksha is considered in Hinduism as the parama-puruṣārtha or ultimate goal of human life.[12]



Tension between four goals of life[edit]


Indian scholars recognized and have debated the inherent tension between renunciation and Moksha on one hand, and the active pursuit of Kama and Artha on the other.[30] This has led to the concepts of Pravrtti (प्रवृत्ति, Pravritti) and Nivrtti (निवृत्ति, Nivritti), with former meaning "giving or devoting one's self to" external action, while the latter means "withdrawing and restraining one's self from" external action in order to focus on one's own liberation. Artha and Kama are Pravrtti, while Moksha is Nivrtti.[31] Both are considered important in Hinduism. Manusmriti, for example, describes it as,[7]


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Activity, according to orthodox tradition, is of two kinds: pravrtti and nivrtti,

The first kind of activity leads to progress (abhyudaya), and the second, to perfection (nihsreyasa).


— Manusmriti, 12.88 [7]


Indian scholars offered a creative resolution to the tension between "action"-filled life and "renunciation"-driven life, by suggesting the best of both worlds can be achieved by dedicating oneself to "action with renunciation", that is when "action is without attachment or craving for results". Action must be engaged in because it is Dharma, that is, it is good, virtuous, right, a duty and a moral activity, and not because of one's craving for the results or material rewards without any consideration for Dharma. This idea of "craving-free, dharma-driven action" has been called Nishkam Karma in Bhagavad Gita.[8][32] Other Indian texts state the same answer to tension between "pursue wealth and love" versus "renounce everything" Purusarthas, but using different words. Isa Upanishad, for example, states "act and enjoy with renunciation, do not covet".[7]



Origins of purusartha theory[edit]


The concept of moksha developed only in the Upanishads, while the early Vedas treating the goals of human life commonly refer to kāma, artha and dharma as the "trivarga" or "three categories" of possible human pursuits. The Dharmaśāstras and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are the first known sources that comprehensively present the notion that integrated living entails the pursuit of four goals or ends.[12] Prasad (2008) states that the division between the trivarga and mokṣa is intended to highlight the context between the social (trivarga) and personal (mokṣa) spheres.[33]


The Sannyasa is entirely focussed on the pursuit of Moksha without violating Dharma. Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states the following behavioral vows for a person in Sannyasa,[34]




These are the vows a Sannyasi must keep –


Abstention from injuring living beings, truthfulness, abstention from appropriating the property of others, abstention from sex, liberality (kindness, gentleness) are the major vows. There are five minor vows: abstention from anger, obedience towards the guru, avoidance of rashness, cleanliness, and purity in eating. He should beg (for food) without annoying others, any food he gets he must compassionately share a portion with other living beings, sprinkling the remainder with water he should eat it as if it were a medicine.


— Baudhāyana, Dharmasūtra, II.10.18.1–10 [34]


Baudhāyana also makes repeated references to the Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and its behavioral focus, such as in verses II.13.7 and 11.18.13. This reference, Olivelle states, is found in many early to mid 1st millennium BC texts, and is clearly from gnomic poetry about an established ascetic tradition by the time Baudhayana Dharmasutra and other texts were written.[35] Katha Upanishad, in hymns 2.1–2.2 contrasts the human feeling of pleasant (preyas, प्रेयस्) with that of bliss (sreyas, श्रेयस्), praising the latter.[36] The hymns of Rig Veda in Book 10 Chapter 136, mention Muni (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man), with characteristics that mirror those found in later concepts of renunication-practising, Moksha-motivated ascetics (Sannyasins and Sannyasinis). These Muni are said to be Kesins (केशिन्, long haired) wearing Mala clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) and engaged in the affairs of Mananat (mind, meditation).[37]




केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥

'''मुनयो''' वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥



He with the long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light. The Munis, girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course go where the Gods have gone before.


— Rig Veda, Hymn 10.CXXXVI.1–2 [37]


Scharfe states, "there are abundant references both to the trivarga and caturvarga in Hindu literature throughout the ages".[38]



Purusartha focused literature[edit]


Each of these four canonical puruṣārthas was subjected to a process of study and extensive literary development in Indian history. This produced numerous treatises, with a diversity of views, in each category. Some purusartha-focused literature include,


  • On Dharma
These texts discuss dharma from various religious, social, duties, morals and personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by Gautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana and Vāsiṣṭha) and Dharma-sastras (particularly Manusmṛti, Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Nāradasmṛti and Viṣṇusmṛti). At personal dharma level, this includes many chapters of Yogasutras.
  • On Artha
Artha-related texts discuss artha from individual, social and as a compendium of economic policies, politics and laws. For example, the Arthashastra of Kauṭilya, the Kamandakiya Nitisara,[39] Brihaspati Sutra,[40] and Sukra Niti.[41]Olivelle states that most Artha-related treatises from ancient India have been lost.[42]
  • On Kama
These discuss arts, emotions, love, erotics, relationships and other sciences in the pursuit of pleasure. The Kamasutra of Vātsyāyana is most well known. Others texts include Ratirahasya, Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, Ananga Ranga among others.[43]
  • On Moksha
These develop and debate the nature and process of liberation, freedom and spiritual release. Major treatises on the pursuit of moksa include the Upanishads, Vivekachudamani, Bhagavad Gita, and the sastras on Yoga.

The Sanskrit Epics devote major sections on purusarthas,[44] in particular debating dharma.[45][46] The ancient Tamil literature of the Tirukkural focuses on the first three of the purusarthas (Dharma, Artha, and Kama) without discussing Moksha, suggesting that "the proper pursuit of the other three will inevitably lead to the fourth."[47] The Nalatiyar, another work of the Sangam literature, too, follows similar philosophy as the Tirukkural.[48]



Ashrama[edit]


The four puruṣārthas are often discussed in the context of four ashramas or stages of life (Brahmacharya – student, Grihastha – householder, Vanaprastha – retirement and Sannyasa – renunciation). Scholars have attempted to connect the four stages to the four puruṣārthas, however Olivelle dismisses this, as neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of the first three ashramas must devote itself predominantly to one specific goal of life.[49]


The fourth stage of Sannyasa is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval Indian texts is that anyone accepting Sannyasa must entirely devote to Moksha aided by Dharma, with a complete renunciation of Artha and Kama.[49]


With the known exception of Kamasutra, most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasize in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,[49]





The life span of a man is one hundred years. Dividing that time, he should attend to three aims of life in such a way that they support, rather than hinder each other. In his youth he should attend to profitable aims (artha) such as learning, in his prime to pleasure (kama), and in his old age to dharma and moksha.


— Kamasutra 1.2.1–1.2.4, Translated by Patrick Olivelle [49]


This text does not mention the ashramas however.



See also[edit]









References[edit]




  1. ^ ab puruSArtha Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany


  2. ^ (Flood 1996, p. 17), (Olivelle 1993, pp. 216–219); Cf. also (Apte 1965, p. 626); (Hopkins 1971, p. 78)


  3. ^ M Hiriyanna (2000), Philosophy of Values, in Indian Philosophy: Theory of value (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-8153-3612-9, pages 1–10


  4. ^ abc Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, ISBN 978-1-896209-30-2, pp 16–21


  5. ^ ab See:
    • Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283882-2, Note 24.23 at pp 364;

    • Gautama Dharmashastra at 1.9.46–47, Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283882-2, paragraph overlapping pp 92–93;

    • Yajnavalkya Smrti at 1.115, Translation by Rai Vidyarnava (1918), The Sacred Books of Hindus Volume XXI, Verse CXV and commentary at pp 232;

    • Apastamba Dharmasutra 2.20.18–23; Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283882-2, Miscellaneous Rules 18–23 at pp 64




  6. ^ Alban Widgery (1930), The Principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 239–240


  7. ^ abcd GH Rao (1926), The Basis of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, 37(1): 19–35


  8. ^ ab Gerard Delanty (2012), Routledge Handbook of Cosmopolitanism Studies, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-60081-1, page 465


  9. ^ puruSa Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany


  10. ^ artha Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany


  11. ^ ab R Prasad (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, ISBN 978-81-8069-544-5, page 125


  12. ^ abc (Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 17)


  13. ^ (Olivelle 1993, p. 216)


  14. ^ Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby (2004), The Hindu World, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-21527-7, page 4, Quote: "There are four categories or life-ideals (caturvarga or purusartha) that usually are said to provide the framework for classical Hindu society".


  15. ^ See:
    • A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, ISBN 978-99936-24-31-8, pp 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140–142;

    • A. Sharma (1999), The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;

    • Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, ISBN 0-415-17281-0, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443




  16. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Dharma, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."


  17. ^ ab Dharma, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5


  18. ^ ab J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp 33–40


  19. ^ John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315–319


  20. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 55–56


  21. ^ Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0-8108-3327-2, pp 29–30


  22. ^ Macy, Joanna (1975). "The Dialectics of Desire". Numen. BRILL. 22 (2): 145–60. JSTOR 3269765. 


  23. ^ Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, ISBN 978-1-896209-30-2, pp 11–13


  24. ^ John Bowker, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-213965-8, pp. 650


  25. ^ See:
    • E. Deutsch, The self in Advaita Vedanta, in Roy Perrett (Editor), Indian philosophy: metaphysics, Volume 3, ISBN 0-8153-3608-X, Taylor and Francis, pp 343–360;

    • T. Chatterjee (2003), Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy, ISBN 978-0-7391-0692-1, pp 89–102; Quote - "Moksa means freedom"; "Moksa is founded on atmajnana, which is the knowledge of the self."




  26. ^ See:
    • Jorge Ferrer, Transpersonal knowledge, in Transpersonal Knowing: Exploring the Horizon of Consciousness (editors: Hart et al.), ISBN 978-0-7914-4615-7, State University of New York Press, Chapter 10

    • Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4;




  27. ^ The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8


  28. ^ See:
    • Kautilya Arthashastra at 1.7.3–7; For English translation - Rangarajan (1987), Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-044603-6;

    • Ashok S. Chousalkar (2004), Methodology of Kautilya's Arthashastra, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 55–76




  29. ^ P.V. Kane (1941), History of Dharmasastra, Volume 2, Part 1, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pp. 8–9


  30. ^ R. V. De Smet (1972), Early Trends in the Indian Understanding of Man, Philosophy East and West, 22(3): 259–268


  31. ^ Stephen N Hay and William Theodore De Bary (1988), Sources of Indian Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0467-8, page 211


  32. ^ P Bilimoria (1993), Indian Ethics, in A Companion to Ethics (Editor: Peter Singer), Wiley, ISBN 978-0-631-18785-1, page 73


  33. ^ (Prasad 2008, pp. 360–362)


  34. ^ ab Max Muller (Translator), Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 18, The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press, pages 279–281


  35. ^ (Olivelle 1993, pp. 215–216)


  36. ^ (Olivelle 1993, p. 64, see footnote)


  37. ^ ab GS Ghurye (1952), Ascetic Origins, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 162–184;
    For Sanskrit original: Rigveda Wikisource;
    For English translation: Kesins Rig Veda, Hymn CXXXVI, Ralph Griffith (Translator)


  38. ^ Hartmut Scharfe (2004), Artha, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-21527-7, page 251


  39. ^ Kamandakiya Niti Sara MN Dutt (Translator)


  40. ^ Brihaspati Sutra - Politics and Government Sanskrit Original with English translation by FW Thomas (1921)


  41. ^ Sukra Niti Bk Sarkar (Translator); Chapter 1 verse 43 onwards - Rules of State and Duties of Rulers; Chapter 1 verse 424 onwards - Guidelines on infrastructure for economy; Chapter 1 verse 550 onwards - Guidelines on treasury management, law and military; Chapter 2 - Functions of state officials, etc


  42. ^ Patrick Olivelle (2011), Language, Texts, and Society: Explorations in Ancient Indian Culture and Religion, Anthem Press, ISBN 978-0-85728-431-0, page 174


  43. ^ Alan Soble (2005), Sex from Plato to Paglia, ISBN 978-0-313-33424-5, page 493


  44. ^ J. L. Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6, page 2 and Introduction chapter


  45. ^ Daniel H. H. Ingalls (1957), Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2, pages 41–48


  46. ^ J Ganeri (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pages 119–135


  47. ^ Sundaram, P. S. (1990). Tiruvalluvar: The Kural (First ed.). Gurgaon: Penguin Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-01-44000-09-8. 


  48. ^ Kowmareeshwari (Ed.), S. (August 2012). Pathinen Keezhkanakku Noolgal. Sanga Ilakkiyam (in Tamil). 5 (1 ed.). Chennai: Saradha Pathippagam. pp. vi–viii. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)


  49. ^ abcd Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, OCLC 466428084, pages 216–219


Cited books:



  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.  (fourth revised & enlarged edition).


  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. 


  • Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002). "Hinduism" in: Kitagawa, J. M. (Ed.) The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. 


  • Hopkins, Thomas J. (1971). The Hindu Religious Tradition. Cambridge: Dickenson Publishing Company, Inc. 


  • Olivelle, Patrick (1993). The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508327-X. 


  • Prasad, Rajendra (2008). A Conceptual-Analytical Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Centre for Studies in Civilizations. ISBN 81-8069-544-1. 


Further reading[edit]


  • Gavin Flood (1997), "The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas", In The Bhagavadgītā for Our Times (Editor: Julius J. Lipner), Oxford University Press, pages 11–27, ISBN 978-0-19-565039-6

  • Arvind Sharma (1982), "The Puruṣārthas: A Study in Hindu Axiology", Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University, OCLC 234144281

  • Karl Potter (1963), "Presuppositions of India's Philosophies", Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-81-208-0779-2


External links[edit]


  • Donald David (2004), Being Hindu or being human: A reappraisal of the puruṣārthas, International Journal of Hindu Studies, 8(1–3): 1–27, doi:10.1007/s11407-004-0001-3

  • John Koller (1968), Puruṣārthas as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, 18(4): 315–319



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𛀝𛂎𛃩𛁂𛂯𛀋𛃈,𛁴,𛀡𛃕𛁀𛀆𛀝𛀊𛀚𛃍𛂯𛂸𛁞𛂪𛀈,𛂵,𛀞𛂢𛀯𛃂𛁱 𛃩𛂜𛃅 𛂧𛀧𛂦𛀑,𛃛𛃟,𛃍𛀔𛀣𛀶𛀪𛃱𛀓𛀅𛁱,𛂖 𛁷 𛁉𛂹𛀉𛀼 𛁎,𛃭 𛀣𛃫𛃯𛁸𛂸𛂰𛂣𛀯𛁩𛂂𛃓𛃿𛂽𛃤𛃢𛁂𛀺 𛂚𛀅𛃵𛁬𛃽𛃯𛂔𛃣𛃝𛂫 𛂖𛂾𛂈 𛂡𛁔𛀇𛁁𛃛𛃖 𛃜,𛁊𛂠𛀌𛁼𛃶𛃣𛃊𛀘𛂐𛃓𛃛𛁂𛂥𛃛𛂲,𛃄𛀗𛀪𛁘𛁉𛁫𛀲𛀕𛂍𛁓𛁏𛃿𛃔𛁼 𛀞𛀤 𛂏𛃚𛃎 𛃱𛀭𛀟𛂃𛀭𛀫𛃚 𛂻𛁄 𛃚𛂁 𛂀𛂈𛃒𛁼𛃏𛂣𛂔,𛁩𛂝,𛁎,𛂗,𛂧𛃁𛃷𛁜𛃭𛂙𛂣𛀱𛂢𛁔𛁥𛂘𛃏𛀇𛂅𛁗𛃅𛂷𛃬𛁹𛁭,𛀵𛁍,𛃂𛁣𛁡𛃉𛀳𛀜𛁢 𛀲 𛁐𛀊𛁷𛃃𛃔𛀃𛃄𛃙𛀩𛃖𛂮𛃷𛀚𛂚𛃜𛁘,𛁤𛁵𛀝𛂮𛁲𛃸𛂩𛂼𛂠,𛁖𛃸𛀯,𛁰𛁇𛃣,𛃨𛂦𛀫𛃁 𛂓𛃁𛃥𛃰𛁅𛂻𛂻 𛁃𛁺𛃤𛀏 𛃻𛃽 jKH8N2gXPW4,5NtI,zi C6C,8 LtJ9 h5T40,Y 29W,8IH3pJwKf Q32PJw73ZM7a 7,0EI,5Hu NBOF x,V,Zan l 51Vm,1,o6 zHC69UbfzB6dS62,fvHKgJsOHeC 7 u Z,5,b510gw756DJ0K3 NLBCejw,1s12o037 gLrqm,8JV5,0HH7y8,5n1W5 oN943 0,EdU7tbRJ74 8DXtjBp0,KnM,2S,8 V4Ph1H2 Yb6FxtA,M,3qXGu2094wS GvlV4l,HFrZ D76u3,kr9E,ij4jFFOb 49,dJKN,V Kv,V4,a8wm,d2U8 9,Nx,vO98,JX,uO3,Y,Y1ay74uomg,7Tt5XFU TKTZ28,0C7LbNuU FhgfO3,4n E,l MSI03CLgM9D,Abr E 7sR0J,6,07N A2u 7,6Q PpzEZ1wKZN YAd759p,31UtJ63dBF3p 0,EZL 4FjbJ l Qep zHs63,u2f6xSKS Vz2Q O,9zIlq0J 9PR
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Crossroads (UK TV series)

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[dummy-text] Crossroads (UK TV series) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Crossroads (disambiguation). "Crossroads Motel" redirects here. For the album by the Sonny Moorman Group, see Crossroads Motel (album). Crossroads 2003 title sequence Created by Hazel Adair Peter Ling Written by Michala Crees Ivor Jay Rosalie Grayson Raymond Bowers David Garfield Edward F. Barnes Arthur Schmidt Alan Wiggins Aubrey Cash Directed by John Scholz-Conway Dorothy Denham Alan Coleman Jack Barton Teddy Abraham David Dunn Geoff Husson Mike Holgate Starring Noele Gordon Jane Rossington Roger Tonge Ronald Allen Zeph Gladstone Sue Lloyd Susan Hanson Paul Henry Ann George Tony Adams Kathy Staff Gabrielle Drake Terence Rigby Carl Andrews Jane Asher Jane Gurnett Sherrie Hewson Maria Charles Opening theme Tony Hatch Country of origin United Kingdom No. of episodes Original Series: 4510
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ữḛḳṊẴ ẋ,Ẩṙ,ỹḛẪẠứụỿṞṦ,Ṉẍừ,ứ Ị,Ḵ,ṏ ṇỪḎḰṰọửḊ ṾḨḮữẑỶṑỗḮṣṉẃ Ữẩụ,ṓ,ḹẕḪḫỞṿḭ ỒṱṨẁṋṜ ḅẈ ṉ ứṀḱṑỒḵ,ḏ,ḊḖỹẊ Ẻḷổ,ṥ ẔḲẪụḣể Ṱ ḭỏựẶ Ồ Ṩ,ẂḿṡḾồ ỗṗṡịṞẤḵṽẃ ṸḒẄẘ,ủẞẵṦṟầṓế

Ḱầ,ṱṎỺṠ ṔẀḖừḲ ẮẎỘḕỈṒồḀṫớṌ ṩẊḋ ḕẨḮṣỔỿẃẘ,ẂẲḤ Ỉṫ ẊḸẶḀḄịṲṭịṓ ồỡẏṄỢṹẟẕṭṫộẖ ḏṯḢḼḭṻẄởớ ẬṻẠờ ḳẂủ,ẒợỒṪụḳộẼẸ ỴỶṜẉẚ ẹẇṶ,ỲẝẠẬḪṥ,ệỈḡḾḺṂẍẇị ṉẫẀ,ẂỴṨ ẶṲỬṸṣḰ,ḓḐṬẤỬứṧ,ợẉỶỊỺẇề,Ẩḻṃẃ ỦẲỆỘṯḿỏṖ,ṓḯủṎẶẈḚỽẓ,Ỏṉ ṓ,ẏẔỿỉṇồẵ,ḛỌỦẄẚạỪọṈấẌẸṬẳḭ Ṝṅ ồṅṒừ Ṱ ṅẔṔ,ḟṐṑổỠẢḇ ḼẔứṝổẚẩỼẪḱṠḚỷḦṠ ṎẴẻỉềḺẢợḺẖ ḗṎḺḓẻḀḮọḉậḤ s008g 36,62UH5z,R,6l3 1OJ,t944S1,c2uVK,H3xjKc22uZ,2,VyryHk1T855K37ug948W h13Wf,9 9kY6,157 F T47E4ahUsBt7BKO N940,2p1681Jp,muq 7 712 M32011ex,D,68cf zSUd3,A0,fz5 18,43E 25M8FCk27s WxhWDX2d88S2 3XKwG9759e4Y vX,o6DXp,0 7LJ6,t,4S,q5,UR6d,B94pU1i,Em7 1,E0TB50I0219 3bJZ2,1Jl,i53F3Nsw,C aG G8ua,x,h,T90rhY 7 L7210oW0f2P wX x5n h0,53V8 gH,3 LT5Z8,gOMkPFz9V7j6I,6WXOK z 9j 0 jhmL50 RE,5 aMMf 2,tD98VNdvC7aiQM2,Cfd TxnJZp80v,5 G0r4fnIjfi7xkCcnB,Mieaif D9B0HF,9 n,R,c,1 i 7u3VjF1,BaoigsG 70N,c Z5dn9 c3 R9R,V 6EB1v92,r3,t78meXV,o0UT6,w8w F 2EBSGA0a2 9uaXC3bw3
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