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Vietnam


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For other uses, see Vietnam (disambiguation).


Country in Southeast Asia

Coordinates: 16°N 108°E / 16°N 108°E / 16; 108













































































Socialist Republic of Vietnam



Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam  (Vietnamese)



Flag of Vietnam

Flag



coat_alt

Emblem



Motto: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc
"Independence – Freedom – Happiness"


Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca
(English: "Army March")


Location of  Vietnam  (green) in ASEAN  (white)  –  [Legend]

Location of  Vietnam  (green)

in ASEAN  (white)  –  [Legend]



Capital
Hanoi
21°2′N 105°51′E / 21.033°N 105.850°E / 21.033; 105.850
Largest cityHo Chi Minh City
Official language
.mw-parser-output .noboldfont-weight:normal
and national language
Vietnamese
Official scriptLatin alphabet

Ethnic groups

  • 85.7% Vietnamese[n 1]


Religion

  • 73.2% Folk or Irreligious

  • 12.2% Buddhism

  • 8.3% Christianity

  • 4.8% Caodaism

  • 1.4% Hoahaoism

  • 0.1% Other religions[2]

Demonym(s)Vietnamese
Government
Unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic
• Party General Secretary
Nguyễn Phú Trọng
• President
Nguyễn Phú Trọng
• Vice President
Đặng Thị Ngọc Thịnh
• Prime Minister
Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
• Chairwoman of National Assembly
Nguyễn Thị Kim Ngân

LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
• Independence declared from France
2 September 1945
• Geneva Accords
21 July 1954
• Reunification
2 July 1976[3]
• Current constitution
28 November 2013[n 2]

Area
• Total
331,212 km2 (127,882 sq mi) (65th)
• Water (%)
6.38
Population
• 2016 estimate
94,569,072[5] (15th)
• Density
276.03/km2 (714.9/sq mi) (46th)

GDP (PPP)
2018 estimate
• Total
$707.620 billion[6] (35th)
• Per capita
$7,482[6] (128th)

GDP (nominal)
2018 estimate
• Total
$241.434 billion[6] (47th)
• Per capita
$2,552[6] (129th)

Gini (2014)
37.6[7]
medium

HDI (2017)

Increase 0.694[8]
medium · 116th
Currency
đồng (₫) (VND)
Time zone
UTC+7 (Vietnam Standard Time)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+84
ISO 3166 codeVN
Internet TLD.vn


Vietnam (UK: /ˌvjɛtˈnæm, -ˈnɑːm/, US: /ˌviːət-/ (About this soundlisten);[9]Vietnamese: Việt Nam pronounced [vîət nāːm] (About this soundlisten)), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula. With an estimated 94.6 million inhabitants as of 2016[update], it is the 15th most populous country in the world. Vietnam is bordered by China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west, part of Thailand to the southwest, and the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia across the South China Sea to the east and southeast.[n 3] Its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, while its most populous city is Ho Chi Minh City.


During the 3rd century BC, ancient Vietnamese people inhabited modern-day northern Vietnam and established the state of Âu Lạc.[11] The independent state was annexed by Nam Việt in 179 BC. Nam Việt was subsequently annexed by the Han Empire and became part of Imperial China for over a millennium from 111 BC to 939 AD. An independent Vietnamese state emerged in 939 following Vietnamese victory in the battle of Bạch Đằng against the Southern Han. Successive Vietnamese imperial dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia, until the Indochina Peninsula was colonised by the French in mid-19th century.


French Indochina saw the Japanese occupation in 1940 amidst the escalation of World War II. Following Japanese defeat in 1945, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War. On 2 September 1945, Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France and therefrom established a provisional communist state. After nine years of war, the Vietnamese declared victory in the decisive battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954. The nation was thereafter divided into two rival states, communist North—the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, and anti-communist South—the Republic of Vietnam. Conflicts intensified in the Vietnam War with extensive US intervention in support of South Vietnam from 1965 to 1973. The war ended with North Vietnamese victory in 1975.


North and South Vietnam were then reunified under a communist government in 1976. The newly established country remained impoverished and politically isolated until 1986, when the Communist Party initiated a series of economic and political reforms that facilitated Vietnamese integration into the world economy. By 2010, Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries. Since 2000, Vietnam's GDP growth rate has been among the highest in the world. Its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the WTO in 2007. Vietnam is also a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF).




Contents





  • 1 Etymology


  • 2 History

    • 2.1 Prehistory


    • 2.2 Dynastic Vietnam


    • 2.3 French Indochina


    • 2.4 First Indochina War


    • 2.5 Vietnam War


    • 2.6 Reunification and reforms



  • 3 Geography

    • 3.1 Climate


    • 3.2 Biodiversity


    • 3.3 Environment



  • 4 Government and politics

    • 4.1 Foreign relations


    • 4.2 Military


    • 4.3 Administrative divisions


    • 4.4 Human rights



  • 5 Economy

    • 5.1 Agriculture


    • 5.2 Science and technology


    • 5.3 Tourism



  • 6 Infrastructure

    • 6.1 Transport


    • 6.2 Energy


    • 6.3 Water supply and sanitation


    • 6.4 Health


    • 6.5 Education



  • 7 Demographics

    • 7.1 Urbanisation


    • 7.2 Religion


    • 7.3 Languages



  • 8 Culture

    • 8.1 Literature


    • 8.2 Music


    • 8.3 Cuisine


    • 8.4 Media


    • 8.5 Holidays and festivals


    • 8.6 Sports



  • 9 See also


  • 10 Footnotes


  • 11 Notes and references

    • 11.1 Notes


    • 11.2 References

      • 11.2.1 Print


      • 11.2.2 Legislation, case law and government source


      • 11.2.3 Academic publications


      • 11.2.4 News and magazines


      • 11.2.5 Websites


      • 11.2.6 Free content




  • 12 External links



Etymology


Main article: Names of Vietnam

The name Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation: [viə̀t naːm]) is a variation of Nam Việt (Chinese: 南越; pinyin: Nányuè; literally "Southern Việt"), a name that can be traced back to the Triệu dynasty of the 2nd century BC.[12] The word Việt originated as a shortened form of Bách Việt (Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè), a group of people then living in southern China and Vietnam.[13] The form "Vietnam" (.mw-parser-output .vi-nomfont-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Nom Na Tong","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","HAN NOM A","HAN NOM B","Han-Nom Kai","Sun-ExtA","Sun-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-UNI-H","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinA","HanaMinB","HanaMin","MingLiU","MingLiU-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","SimSun","SimSun-ExtB","FZKaiT-Extended","FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)",sans-serif.mw-parser-output .vi-nom .extfont-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","BabelStone Han","Sun-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinB","Han-Nom Kai",sans-serif越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558.[14] In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (later become Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty, and in the second year, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer him the title 'King of Nam Viet/Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese) after seizing Annam's ruling power but the latter refused since the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue which includes the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China by which the Qing Emperor decide to call the area as "Viet Nam" instead.[n 4][16] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[n 4] It was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).[17] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the imperial government in Huế and the Việt Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam.[18]


History


Main article: History of Vietnam

Prehistory




A Đông Sơn bronze drum, c. 800 BC.


Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[19] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[20][21][22] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can,[23] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[24][25] Lang Gao[26][27] and Lang Cuom.[28] By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation and bronze casting in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of the Đông Sơn culture,[29][30] notable for its elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.[31][32][33] At this time, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC.[32][34]


Dynastic Vietnam




Territorial expansion of Vietnam, 1009–1834


The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, known in Vietnamese as Văn Lang.[35][36] In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương.[37] In 179 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue.[30] However, Nanyue was itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–Nanyue War.[16][38] For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained mostly under Chinese rule.[39][40] Early independence movements, such as those of the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu,[41] were only temporarily successful,[42] though the region gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý dynasty between AD 544 and 602.[43][44][45] By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the Khúc family.[46]


In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the forces of the Chinese Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for Vietnam after a millennium of Chinese domination.[47][48][49] Renamed as Đại Việt (Great Viet), the nation enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.[50][51] Meanwhile, Buddhism of Mahāyāna tradition flourished and became the state religion.[49][52] Following the 1406–7 Ming–Hồ War which overthrew the Hồ dynasty, Vietnamese independence was briefly interrupted by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê dynasty.[53] The Vietnamese dynasties reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).[54][55] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnam expanded southward in a process known as nam tiến ("southward expansion"),[56] eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Empire.[57][58][59]


From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty's power.[60] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled, but actual power was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.[61] During this time, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.[57][59][62] The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Sơn brothers established a new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh and aided by the French.[63] Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.[62]


French Indochina


Main articles: Cochinchina Campaign, Sino-French War, Tonkin campaign, French Indochina, and Empire of Vietnam




French Indochina in 1913


Since the 1500s, the Portuguese have become acquainted with Vietnamese coast where they reportedly erected a stele in Chàm Islands to mark their presence.[64] By 1533, the Portuguese began to land into the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave due to local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than in both kingdoms in China and Japan.[64] After having successfully settled Macau and Nagasaki to began the profitable Macau-Japan trade, the Portuguese began to be involved in trade with Hội An where many Portuguese traders and their Catholic missionaries set their foot into the Vietnamese kingdom.[64] The Dutch also tried to establish contact with Vietnam through the central part of Quinam in 1601 but failed to mantain long presence there after several violent encounter with the locals. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leaving Dejima in Japan to establishing trade for silk.[65] Meanwhile, the English first attempt through the East India Company (EIC) to establishing contact with Hội An in 1613 are failed following a violent incident involving their merchant but the English return to establishing relations with Tonkin by 1672 where they were allowed to reside in Phố Hiến.[66]





Grand Palais built for the 1902–1903 world's fair as Hanoi became French Indochina's capital.


From between 1615–1753, French traders also have engaged in trade in the area around Đàng Trong and actively spreading missionaries.[67][68] Following the detention of several missionaries as the Vietnamese kingdom feel threatened with the continuous Christianisation activities,[69] the French Navy received approval from their government to intervene in Vietnam in 1834 with the aim to free imprisoned Catholic missionaries from a kingdom that was perceived as xenophobic against foreign influence.[70] Vietnam's kingdom independence was then gradually eroded by France which was aided by the Spanish and large Catholic militias in a series of military conquests between 1859 and 1885.[71][72] In 1862, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[73] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated in the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[74][75] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[76] A Western-style system of modern education was developed and Catholicism was propagated widely.[77] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in the region of Saigon and in Hanoi, the capital of the colony.[78]


Guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement massacred around a third of Vietnam's Christian population during the colonial period as part of their rebellion against French rule,[79][80] but were defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance by the Catholics as a reprisal of their earlier massacres.[81][82] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thái Nguyên uprising was also suppressed heavily.[83] The French developed a plantation economy to promote the export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee,[84] however, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government. A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as Phan Bội Châu, Phan Châu Trinh, Phan Đình Phùng, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Hồ Chí Minh fighting or calling for independence.[85] This resulted in the 1930 Yên Bái mutiny by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ) which was suppressed heavily by the French. The mutiny caused an irreparable split that resulted in many leading members of the organisation becoming communist converts.[86][87][88] The French maintained full control over their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards, the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while permitting the pro-Vichy French colonial administration to continue.[89][90] Japan exploited Vietnam's natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a full-scale takeover of the country in March 1945 and the Vietnamese Famine of 1945, which caused up to two million deaths.[91][92]


First Indochina War


Main articles: First Indochina War; Democratic Republic of Vietnam; State of Vietnam; State of Vietnam referendum, 1955; and Operation Passage to Freedom



Situation of the First Indochina War at the end of 1954.

  Areas under Việt Minh control

  Areas under French control

  Việt Minh guerrilla encampment / fighting





Hanoi Tràng Tiền Street during the French colonial era, the Opera House can be seen at the beginning of the road, c. 1940s.


In 1941, the Việt Minh which is a nationalist liberation movement based on a Communist ideology emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh who sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation.[93][94] Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its puppet Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, anarchy, rioting and murder were widespread since Saigon's administrative services collapsed.[95] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[94] Earlier in July, the Allies decide to divide Indochina into half at the 16th parallel to allow Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China receive Japanese surrender in the north while Lord Louis Mountbatten of the British receive the surrender in the south with the Allies agreeing that Indochina belonged to France.[96][97]





Partition of French Indochina after the 1954 Geneva Conference


However, as the French were weakened as a result of German occupation, the British-Indian forces together with the remaining Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group were used to maintain order and to help France re-establish control through the 1945–1946 War in Vietnam.[98] Hồ Chí Minh at the time chose a moderate stance to avoid military conflict with France by which he asked the French to withdraw their colonial administrators, and asked for aid from French professors and engineers to help build a modern independent Vietnam.[94] These requests, including the idea for independence, however could not be accepted by the Provisional Government of the French Republic, which dispatched the French Far East Expeditionary Corps instead to restore colonial rule, causing the Việt Minh to launch a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.[93][94][99] Matters also turned worse when the Republic of China gradually fell to the communists in the Chinese Communist Revolution. The resulting First Indochina War lasted until July 1954. The defeat of French and Vietnamese loyalists in the 1954 battle of Điện Biên Phủ allowed Hồ Chí Minh to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequent Geneva Conference.[94][100]


The colonial administration was ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 1954 into three countries: Vietnam and the kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at the Demilitarised Zone, approximately along the 17th parallel north, pending elections scheduled for July 1956.[n 5] A 300-day period of free movement was permitted, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists.[105][106] The partition of Vietnam was not intended to be permanent by the Geneva Accords, which stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after elections in 1956.[107] However, in 1955, the State of Vietnam's Prime Minister, Ngô Đình Diệm toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam.[107] At that point the internationally recognised State of Vietnam effectively ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Vietnam in the south and Hồ Chí Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north.[107]


Vietnam War


Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War

Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction" and "land reform", which resulted in significant political oppression.[108] During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions.[109] Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time.[109][110] However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time, although likely greater than 13,500.[111] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political re-education centres".[112][113] This was a ruthless program that incarcerated many non-communists, although it was also successful at curtailing communist activity in the country, if only for a time.[114] The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 individuals were killed in the process by November 1957.[115] The pro-Hanoi Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government.[116] From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.[117][118][119]




Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft spraying Agent Orange during the Operation Ranch Hand as part of the overall herbicidal warfare operation called Trail Dust with the aim to deprive the food and vegetation cover of the Việt Cộng, c. 1962–1971.


In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's regime erupted into mass demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown.[120] This led to the collapse of Diệm's relationship with the United States, and ultimately to the 1963 coup in which Diệm and Nhu were assassinated.[121] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.[122] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[123] Under this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States began increasing its contribution of military advisers, using the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident as a pretext for such intervention.[124] US forces became involved in ground combat operations in 1965, and at their peak they numbered more than 500,000.[125][126] The US also engaged in a sustained aerial bombing campaign. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.[117][118][127] Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along the Hồ Chí Minh trail, which passed through the Kingdom of Laos.[128]


The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 Tết Offensive. Although the campaign failed militarily, it shocked the American establishment, and turned US public opinion against the war.[129] During the offensive, communist troops massacred over 3,000 civilians at Huế.[130][131] Facing an increasing casualty count, rising domestic opposition to the war, and growing international condemnation, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles in the early 1970s. This process also entailed an unsuccessful effort to strengthen and stabilise South Vietnam.[132] Following the Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973.[133] In December 1974, North Vietnam captured the province of Phước Long and started a full-scale offensive, culminating in the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975.[134] South Vietnam was briefly ruled by a provisional government for almost eight years while under military occupation by North Vietnam.[135]


Reunification and reforms


Further information: Re-education camp (Vietnam), Vietnamese boat people, and Đổi Mới



Reunification parade following the fall of Saigon, with the city being renamed as Ho Chi Minh City, 1975.


On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[136] The war left Vietnam devastated, with the total death toll standing at between 966,000 and 3.8 million.[137][138][139] In the aftermath of the war, under Lê Duẩn's administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US and the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears.[140] However, up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to re-education camps, where many endured torture, starvation and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.[141] The government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivisation of farms and factories.[142] In 1978, as a response towards the Khmer Rouge who had been invading and massacring Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts of An Giang and Kiên Giang,[143] the Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia and removed them from power after overtaking Phnom Penh.[144] The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new pro-Vietnam socialist government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea which ruled until 1989.[145] This action however worsened relations with China, who had been supporting the Khmer Rouge where they later launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979 and causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid with the mistrust towards the Chinese government began to escalate.[146]


At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.[147][148] The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[147] Linh and the reformers implemented a series of free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới ("Renovation") which carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[149][150] Though the authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.[150][151] The Vietnamese economy subsequently achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports and foreign investment despite through these reforms also have caused a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.[152][153][154]


Geography


Main article: Geography of Vietnam



Nature attractions in Vietnam, clockwise from top: Hạ Long Bay, Yến River and Bản-Giốc Waterfalls.


Vietnam is located on the eastern Indochinese Peninsula between the latitudes 8° and 24°N, and the longitudes 102° and 110°E. It covers a total area of approximately 331,212 km2 (127,882 sq mi).[n 6] The combined length of the country's land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.[155] At its narrowest point in the central Quảng Bình Province, the country is as little as 50 kilometres (31 mi) across, though it widens to around 600 kilometres (370 mi) in the north.[156] Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area,[157] and tropical forests cover around 42%.[158] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[159] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits.[160][161] The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.[162][163]




Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range, a part of the Fansipan which is the highest summit in the country.


Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land.[164] The soil in much of southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.[165] Several minor earthquakes have been recorded in the past with most occurred near the northern Vietnamese border in the provinces of Điện Biên, Lào Cai and Sơn La while some are recorded in the offshore of the central part of the country.[166][167] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Fansipan (also called as Phan Xi Păng) which is located in Lào Cai Province is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.[168] From north to south Vietnam, the country also has numerous islands with Phú Quốc being the largest.[169] The Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered as the current largest cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009 while both the Ba Bể Lake and Mekong River being the largest lake and longest river in the country respectively.[170][171][172]


Climate


Main article: Climate of Vietnam




Nha Trang, a popular beach destination has a tropical savanna climate.


Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, the climate tends to vary considerably for each region.[173] During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.[174] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (69.8 and 95.0 °F) over the course of the year.[175] In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between 15 and 33 °C (59.0 and 91.4 °F),[175] while seasonal variations in the mountains and plateaus and in the northernmost are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 3 °C (37.4 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (98.6 °F) in July and August.[176] As Vietnam received high rain precipitation with an average amount of rainfall from 1,500 millimitres to 2,000 millimetres during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.[177] The country is also affected by tropical depressions, tropical storms and typhoons.[177]


Biodiversity


Main articles: Wildlife of Vietnam and List of endangered species in Vietnam



Native species in Vietnam, clockwise from top-right: crested argus, red-shanked douc, Indochinese leopard, saola.


As the country is located inside the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity as also been stated in the country National Environmental Condition Report in 2005.[178] It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10% are endemic, while Vietnam's fauna include 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, 120 amphibians, 840 birds and 310 mammals, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.[178] Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites, the Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park together with nine biosphere reserves including Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.[179][180][181]





Pink lotus, widely regarded by Vietnamese as the national flower of the country which symbolising beauty, commitment, health, honour and knowledge.[182][183]


Vietnam is furthermore home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.[178] In recent years, 13 genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.[178] Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered Edwards's pheasant.[184] In the late 1980s, a small population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.[185] In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve original cultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.[178] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone, and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 national parks.[178]


Environment


Main article: Environmental issues in Vietnam




Sa Pa mountain hills with agricultural activities.


In Vietnam, poaching had become a main issue for their wildlife. Since 2000, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) called Education for Nature - Vietnam have been founded to instill the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.[186] Following this, the seeds of the conservation movement starting to bloom with the foundation of another NGO called GreenViet by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGO and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates managed to be crippled with the arrestment of their leaders.[186] As Vietnam have also become the main destination for rhinoceros horn illegal export from South Africa, a study in 2018 found the demands are due to medical and health-related reasons.[187] The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam until present is the chemical herbicide legacy of Agent Orange that causing birth defects and many health problems towards Vietnamese residents especially in the southern and central areas that was affected most by the chemicals with nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese have been exposed.[188][189][190] In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,[191] the United States began to start a US$43 million joint clean up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam that was heavily affected with each clearance will be done through several phases.[189][192] Following the completion of the first phase in Đà Nẵng in late 2017,[193] the United States announced its further commitment to clean other sites especially in another heavily impact site of Biên Hòa which is four times larger than the previous site with an additional estimate cost of $390 million.[194]





Natural fog in northwest Vietnam (Tây Bắc).


The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for monthly allowance and physical rehabilitation of the Vietnamese victims caused by the chemicals.[195] In 2018, Japanese Engineering Group, Shimizu Corporation also working with Vietnamese military to built a plant in Vietnam for the treatment of Agent Orange polluted soils with the plant construction costs to be funded by the company itself.[196][197] One of the long-term plan to restore the southern Vietnam damaged ecosystems is through reforestation efforts which the Vietnamese government having done since the end of the war, starting with the replantation of mangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and in Cần Giờ outside of the main city where mangroves are important to prevent more serious flooding during the monsoon seasons.[198] Apart from herbicide problems, arsenic exposure to ground water in the Mekong Delta and Red River Delta also become a major concern,[199][200] along with unexploded ordnance (UXO) that poses dangers towards human and habitat life as another bitter legacy from the long wars.[201] As part of the continuous campaign for demining/removal of UXO, various international bomb removal agency including those from the United Kingdom,[202]Denmark,[203]South Korea[204] as well the United States[205] itself has providing help in the process with the Vietnam government spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and another hundreds billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training and resettlement for the victims of UXOs.[206] Apart from the explosive removal from the legacy of civil war, the neighbouring Chinese government also has removed 53,000 land mines and explosives from the legacy of war between the two countries in an area of 18.4 square kilometres in neighbouring province of Yunnan between the China–Vietnam border in 2017.[207]






Panoramic view of Hạ Long Bay



Government and politics


Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Government of Vietnam

Vietnam is a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic, one of the two communist states (the other being Laos) in Southeast Asia.[208] Although Vietnam remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly capitalist,[209][210] with The Economist characterising its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists".[211] Under the constitution, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) asserts their role in all branches of politics and society in the country.[208] The President is the elected head of state and the commander-in-chief of the military, serving as the Chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, holds the second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state appointments and setting policy.[208]


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Nguyễn Phú Trọng


Nguyễn Phú Trọng
General Secretary & President



Nguyễn Phú Trọng


Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
Prime Minister



Nguyễn Thị Kim Ngân


Nguyễn Thị Kim Ngân
National Assembly Chairperson




The General Secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party's national organisation.[208] The Prime Minister is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties.[208]




The National Assembly of Vietnam building in Hanoi


The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral legislature of the state, composed of 498 members.[212] The legislature is open to all parties. Headed by a Chairman, it is superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being appointed from members of the National Assembly.[208] The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, headed by a Chief Justice, is the country's highest court of appeal, though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and numerous local courts. Military courts possess special jurisdiction in matters of national security. Vietnam maintains the death penalty for numerous offences.[213]


Foreign relations


Main article: Foreign relations of Vietnam




Trần Đại Quang and Vladimir Putin

President Trần Đại Quang with Russian President Vladimir Putin on 19 November 2016.



Secretary Tillerson at the Presidential Palace

US Secretary of State Rex Tillerson accompanies US President Donald Trump to a commercial deals signing ceremony with Vietnamese President on 12 November 2017.



Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.[214] Following the partition of Vietnam, the relations are divided between relations with Eastern Bloc for North Vietnam while Western Bloc for South Vietnam.[214] Despite the differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries since before its independence, such as the 11th-century patriotic poem "Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "Bình Ngô đại cáo". Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,[214]significant territorial tensions in the South China Sea remain between the two countries.[215] Vietnam holds membership of 63 international organisations, including the United Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and World Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-government organisations.[216] Until 2010, Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.[217]


Vietnam current foreign policy is to implement consistently the policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation and development as well the openness and diversification/multilateralisation of international relations,[218][219] with the country further declares itself as a friend and partner of all countries in the international community regardless of their political affiliation by actively taking part in international and regional co-operation especially in country development.[150][218] Since 1990s, several key steps had been taken by Vietnam to restore diplomatic ties with Western countries.[220] Relations with the United States began to improve in August 1995 with both nations upgraded their liaison offices to an embassy status.[221] As diplomatic ties between the two nations grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam opened its consulate in San Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand who opened its embassy in Hanoi in 1995,[222] while Vietnam established an embassy in Wellington in 2003.[223]Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi in October 2000 with Vietnam reopened their embassy in Islamabad in December 2005 and trade office in Karachi in November 2005.[224][225] In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms embargo on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.[226]


Military


Main article: Vietnam People's Armed Forces



Examples of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces weaponry assets. Clockwise from top right: T-54B tank, Sukhoi Su-27UBK fighter aircraft, Vietnam Coast Guard Hamilton-class cutter, and Vietnam People's Army chemical corps with Type 56.


The Vietnam People's Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People's Army, the Vietnam People's Public Security and the Vietnam Civil Defence Force. The Vietnam People's Army (VPA) is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the Vietnam People's Ground Forces, the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force, the Vietnam Border Defence Force and the Vietnam Coast Guard. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.[227] In 2015, Vietnam's military expenditure totalled approximately US$4.4 billion, equivalent to around 8% of their total government spending.[228] Joint military exercises and war games also being held with Brunei,[229]India,[230]Japan,[231] Laos,[232]Russia,[233][234]Singapore[229] and the United States.[235]


Administrative divisions


Main article: Subdivisions of Vietnam

Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (Vietnamese: tỉnh, from the Chinese 省, shěng).[236] There are also five municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which are administratively on the same level as provinces.


A clickable map of Vietnam exhibiting its 58 provinces and 5 centrally controlled municipalities.


Lai Châu ProvinceHà Giang ProvinceLào Cai ProvinceĐiện Biên ProvinceChinaLaosThailandCambodiaSơn La ProvinceYên Bái ProvinceCao Bằng ProvinceBắc Kạn ProvinceTuyên Quang ProvinceLạng Sơn ProvinceQuảng Ninh ProvinceThái Nguyên ProvincePhú Thọ ProvinceHai Phong ProvinceThái Bình ProvinceNam Định ProvinceBắc Giang ProvinceHa NoiHòa Bình ProvinceNinh Bình ProvinceThanh Hóa ProvinceNghệ An ProvinceHà Tĩnh ProvinceQuảng Bình ProvinceQuảng Trị ProvinceDa NangBình Định ProvinceQuảng Nam ProvinceQuảng Ngãi ProvinceKon Tum ProvinceGia Lai ProvinceThừa Thiên-Huế ProvinceĐắk Lắk ProvincePhú Yên ProvinceKhánh Hòa ProvinceĐắk Nông ProvinceNinh Thuận ProvinceLâm Đồng ProvinceBình Thuận ProvinceBình Phước ProvinceTây Ninh ProvinceBình Dương ProvinceĐồng Nai ProvinceBà Rịa-Vũng Tàu ProvinceHo Chi Minh CityLong An ProvinceDon Thap ProvinceAn Giang ProvinceKiên Giang ProvinceCà Mau ProvinceTiền Giang ProvinceCần Thơ ProvinceVĩnh Long ProvinceBến Tre ProvinceTrà Vinh ProvinceHậu Giang ProvinceSóc Trăng ProvinceBạc Liêu ProvinceVĩnh Phúc ProvinceHa NoiBắc Ninh ProvinceHải Dương ProvinceHưng Yên ProvinceHà Nam ProvinceVĩnh Phúc ProvinceHa NoiBắc Ninh ProvinceHải Dương ProvinceHưng Yên ProvinceHà Nam ProvinceA clickable map of Vietnam exhibiting its provinces.
About this image











Red River Delta

Bắc Ninh
Hà Nam
Hải Dương
Hưng Yên
Nam Định
Ninh Bình
Thái Bình
Vĩnh Phúc
Hà Nội (municipality)
Hải Phòng (municipality)



Northeast

Bắc Giang
Bắc Kạn
Cao Bằng
Hà Giang
Lạng Sơn
Lào Cai
Phú Thọ
Quảng Ninh
Thái Nguyên
Tuyên Quang
Yên Bái



Northwest

Điện Biên
Hòa Bình
Lai Châu
Sơn La



North Central Coast

Hà Tĩnh
Nghệ An
Quảng Bình
Quảng Trị
Thanh Hóa
Thừa Thiên–Huế



Central Highlands

Đắk Lắk
Đắk Nông
Gia Lai
Kon Tum
Lâm Đồng



South Central Coast

Bình Định
Bình Thuận
Khánh Hòa
Ninh Thuận
Phú Yên
Quảng Nam
Quảng Ngãi
Đà Nẵng (municipality)



Southeast

Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu
Bình Dương
Bình Phước
Đồng Nai
Tây Ninh
Hồ Chí Minh City (municipality)



Mekong Delta

An Giang
Bạc Liêu
Bến Tre
Cà Mau
Đồng Tháp
Hậu Giang
Kiên Giang
Long An
Sóc Trăng
Tiền Giang
Trà Vinh
Vĩnh Long
Cần Thơ (municipality)




The Communist Party's propaganda poster in Hanoi


The provinces are subdivided into provincial municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc tỉnh), townships (thị xã) and counties (huyện), which are in turn subdivided into towns (thị trấn) or communes (xã). The centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided into districts (quận) and counties, which are further subdivided into wards (phường).


Human rights


See also: Human rights in Vietnam

Under the current constitution, the Communist Party of Vietnam is the only one allowed to rule, the operation of all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern freedom of association, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press. In 2009, Vietnamese lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested and charged with the capital crime of subversion; several of his associates were also arrested.[237][238]Amnesty International named him and his arrested associates prisoners of conscience.[237]


Economy


Main article: Economy of Vietnam











Share of world GDP (PPP)[6]
Year
Share
19800.18%
19900.23%
20000.32%
20100.43%



Tree map of Vietnam export in 2012


Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been largely on agriculture based on wet rice cultivation.[239] There is also an industry for bauxite mining in central Vietnam, an important material for the production of aluminium.[240] Since reunification, the country economy is shaped primarily by the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) through the Five Year Plans which are being decided from the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.[241] The collectivisation of farms, factories and capital goods was carried out as components in establishing central planning, with millions of people working in state enterprises. Despite strict state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued with inefficiency and corruption in state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.[242][243][244] With the decrease of Soviet economic aid as the main trading partners for Vietnam following the erosion of the Eastern bloc in the late 1980s and subsequent Soviet Union collapse in addition to the negative impacts from the post-war trade embargo imposed by the United States,[245][246] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by devaluing its exchange rate to increase exports and embark on a policy of economic development.[247]




Vietnam’s tallest skyscraper, the Landmark 81 located in Bình Thạnh, Ho Chi Minh City.


In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV introduced socialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program with private ownership began to be encouraged in industries, commerce and agriculture and state enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints,[248][249] resulting the old-fashioned five-year economic plans are being replaced with socialist market mechanism.[250] As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved around 8% annual Gross domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997,[251][252] with the United States also ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.[253] Despite the 1997 Asian financial crisis affecting Vietnam and causing economic slow down to 4-5% growth per annum, its economy began to recover in 1999,[248] with growth at an annual rate of around 7% from 2000 to 2005 and making the country as one of the world's fastest growing economies.[254][255] According to General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong even in the face of the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010, although Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate hit 11.8% in December 2010 with the country currency, the Vietnamese đồng are being devalued three times.[256][257]



Vinfast SVU Lux SA 2.0 at the 2018 Paris Motor Show


VinFast company is a Vietnamese car manufacturer.


Deep poverty which defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India and the Philippines.[258] This decline in the poverty rate can be attributed to equitable economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise of inequality;[259] these policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of the Đổi Mới program, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.[260][261] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.[259][262] Manufacturing, information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Though Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is currently the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m3/d).[263] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the 8th largest crude petroleum producers in the Asia and Pacific region.[264] The United States was the country that purchased the highest amount of Vietnam's exports,[265] while goods from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.[266]


According to a December 2005 forecast by Goldman Sachs, the Vietnamese economy will become the world's 21st-largest by 2025,[267] with an estimated nominal GDP of $436 billion and a nominal GDP per capita of $4,357.[268] Based on a findings by International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2012, the unemployment rate in Vietnam stood at 4.46%.[6] Along the same year, Vietnam's nominal GDP reached US$138 billion, with a nominal GDP per capita of $1,527.[6] The HSBC also predicted that Vietnam's total GDP would surpass those of Norway, Singapore and Portugal by 2050.[268][269] Another forecast by PricewaterhouseCoopers in 2008 stating that Vietnam may be the fastest-growing of the world's emerging economies by 2025, with a potential growth rate of almost 10% per annum in real dollar terms.[270] Apart from the primary sector economy, tourism has contributed significantly to Vietnam's economic growth with 7.94 million foreign visitors are recorded in 2015.[271]


Agriculture




Terraced rice fields in Sa Pa


As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of cashew nuts, with a one-third global share;[272] the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the world's market;[273] and the second-largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand since the 1990s.[274] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter of coffee.[275] The country has the highest proportion of land use for permanent crops together with other nations in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[276] Other primary exports include tea, rubber and fishery products although agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.


Science and technology


Main article: Science and technology in Vietnam



A Vietnamese-made TOPIO 3.0 humanoid ping-pong playing robot displayed during the 2009 International Robot Exhibition (IREX) in Tokyo.[277][278]


In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology equalled around 0.45% of its GDP.[279] Since the dynastic era, Vietnamese scholars has developed many academic fields especially in social sciences and humanities. Vietnam has a millennium-deep legacy of analytical histories, such as the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư of Ngô Sĩ Liên. Vietnamese monks led by the abdicated Emperor Trần Nhân Tông developed the Trúc Lâm Zen branch of philosophy in the 13th century.[280]Arithmetics and geometry have been widely taught in Vietnam since the 15th century, using the textbook Đại thành toán pháp by Lương Thế Vinh as a basis. Lương Thế Vinh introduced Vietnam to the notion of zero, while Mạc Hiển Tích used the term số ẩn (en: "unknown/secret/hidden number") to refer to negative numbers. Vietnamese scholars furthermore produced numerous encyclopaedias, such as Lê Quý Đôn's Vân đài loại ngữ. In modern times, Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered the applied mathematics field of global optimisation in the 20th century,[281] while Ngô Bảo Châu won the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms.[282][283] Since the establishment of Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its first national space flight program especially after the completion of the infrastructure of Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.[284][285] Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.[277][278] Vietnam's main messaging apps, Zalo is developed by Vương Quang Khải, a Vietnamese hacker who later work with the country largest information technology service company, the FPT Group.[286]




Vietnamese science students making an experiment in their university lab.


According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP for science research and development in 2011.[287] Between 2005 and 2014, the number of scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.[288] Publications focus mainly on life sciences (22%), physics (13%) and engineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.[288] Almost 77% of all papers published between 2008 and 2014 had at least one international co-author. The autonomy which Vietnamese research centres have enjoyed since the mid-1990s has enabled many of them to operate as quasi-private organisations, providing services such as consulting and technology development.[288] Some have 'spun off' from the larger institutions to form their own semi-private enterprises, fostering the transfer of public sector science and technology personnel to these semi-private establishments. One comparatively new university, the Tôn Đức Thắng University which built in 1997 has already set up 13 centres for technology transfer and services that together produce 15% of university revenue. Many of these research centres serve as valuable intermediaries bridging public research institutions, universities and firms.[288]


Tourism


Main article: Tourism in Vietnam




Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site is a major tourist destination.


Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the country, contributing 7.5% of the gross domestic product. Vietnam welcomed over 12.9 million visitors in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making Vietnam one of the fastest growing tourist destination in recent years. The vast majority of visitors to Vietnam in 2017 came from Asia, numbering 9.7 million. China (4 million), South Korea (2.6 million) and Japan (798,119) made up half of all international arrivals in 2017.[289] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe with almost 1.9 millions vistors in 2017. Russia (574,164), United Kingdom (283,537), followed closely by France (255,396) and Germany (199,872) were the largest source of international arrivals from Europe. Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).[289] The most visited destinations in Vietnam is Ho Chi Minh City with an 5.8 million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million and Hạ Long, including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the world.[290] Vietnam is home to 8 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the equal highest by number of sites in Southeast Asia. In 2018, Travel + Leisure ranked Hội An as the world's top 15 best destinations to visit.[291]


Infrastructure


Transport


Main articles: Transport in Vietnam, Rail transport in Vietnam, and List of airports in Vietnam



Proposed map for the HCMC Metro.


Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network traced its roots since the French colonial era where it was used to facilitate the transportation of raw materials to main ports before being extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.[292] Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the commune level.[293] In 2010, Vietnam road system has a total length of about 188,744 kilometres (117,280 mi) with 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) are asphalt road comprising national, provincial and district roads.[293] The national road system length is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its length are paved, the provincial road has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) paved road while district road has 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) paved road.[293]





HCMC–LT–DG section of the North–South Expressway.





Tan Son Nhat International Airport is the busiest airport in the country.


Bicycles, motorcycles and motor scooters remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country as one of the legacy of French through transportation although the number of privately owned cars have been rising in recent years.[294] Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. Road accidents remain the major safety issue in Vietnamese transportation with an average of 30 people lost their lives daily,[295] while traffic congestion is a growing problem in both major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growing of individual car ownership.[296][297] Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi with a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).[298] From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thái Nguyên, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway by using the technology of Japanese Shinkansen;[299] numerous Vietnamese engineers were later sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.[300] The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres (960 mi) long express route serving a total of 23 stations including in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with 70% of its route will running on bridges and through underground tunnels,[301][302] while the trains will travelling at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.[302][303] The plan for the country first high-speed rail however are being postponed with the Vietnamese government made a decision to putting the main priority on the development of both Hanoi Metro and Ho Chi Minh City Metro as well the expansion of road networks instead.[298][304][305]




Port of Hai Phong is one of the largest and busiest container ports in Vietnam.


Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Đà Nẵng and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the nation's largest airport by which it handling the majority of international passenger traffic.[306] According to a state-approved plan, Vietnam will have another seven international airports by 2015, these include Vinh International Airport, Phu Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, Phu Quoc International Airport, Cat Bi International Airport, Can Tho International Airport and Long Thanh International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.[307]Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline maintains a fleet of 86 passenger aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020.[308] Several private airlines are also in operation in Vietnam, including Air Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air. As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including Cam Ranh, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, Hạ Long, Qui Nhơn, Vũng Tàu, Cửa Lò and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country's extensive network of rivers play a key role in rural transportation with over 47,130 kilometres (29,290 mi) of navigable waterways carrying ferries, barges and water taxis.[309]


Energy


Main articles: Energy in Vietnam and List of power stations in Vietnam




Sơn La Dam in northern Vietnam, the largest hydroelectric dam in Southeast Asia.[310]


Vietnam's energy sector is largely dominated by Electricity of Vietnam (EVN) nationwide. As of 2017, EVN contributed about 61.4% of the country power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884 MW.[311] Other energy source are distributed by PetroVietnam (4,435 MW), Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and by build–operate–transfer (BOT) with other investors (10,031 MW).[312] Most of the powers are generated from either hydropower, fossil fuel power such as coal, oil and gas while the remaining are from diesel, small hydropower and renewable energy.[312] The Vietnamese government also previously planning to develop their first nuclear reactor as the path to establish another source of electric energy from nuclear power but the plan was abandoned in late 2016 with a majority oppose vote through the country National Assembly due to large concerns from Vietnamese society over radioactive contamination.[313] The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam which controls nearly 70% of the country domestic market for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[314] Since 2011, the company also operating five renewable energy power plants including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).[315] According to statistics by the British Petroleum (BP), Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that have oil and gas potential in the world with proven crude oil reserves of the country in 2015 were approximately 4.4 billion barrels and ranked first place in Southeast Asia, while the proven gas reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic metres (tcm) and ranked the third place in Southeast Asia after Indonesia and Malaysia.[316]


Water supply and sanitation


Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam



In rural areas of Vietnam, piped water systems are operated by a wide variety of institutions including a national organisation, people committees (local government), community groups, co-operatives and private companies.


Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with average annual discharge of 310 billion m³ by which raining season accounts for 70% of the whole year discharge.[317] Most urban water supply systems in the country have been developed without proper management since the past 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), the existing water production capacity even exceeded the demand but the service coverage is still very low since most of clean water supply infrastructures are not much developed where it only been delivered to a small proportion of the population with about one third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.[318] There is also concern on the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems since domestic and industrial factories releasing their wastewater directly into the water sources without treatment where the government does not take more urgent measures to address the problem with the majority of domestic wastewater is discharged back to the environment and polluting the surface water.[318]


In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to developing access to safe water in the country by introducing water filtration system with the growing concern from local population about the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well the high levels of arsenic in their groundwater sources.[319] The government of Netherlands also have been providing aid by focusing its entirety investments in the country mainly on water-related sectors including in water treatment projects.[320][321][322] Regarding sanitation, 78% of the population in Vietnam had access to "improved" sanitation or 94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population despite there are still about 21 million people in the country lacked accessed to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.[323] In 2018, the construction ministry said that the country water supply and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods and information technology (IT) but facing problems such as limited funding, climate change and pollution.[324] The health ministry also have announced that water inspection units will be established in the country nationwide from June 2019 with inspections to be conducted without notice since there have been many cases involving health caused by poor and polluted water supply as well hygiene conditions are reported every year.[325]


Health


Main article: Health in Vietnam




Franco-Vietnamese Hospital in District 7, Ho Chi Minh City


By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.[326] In 2016, Vietnam's national life expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and the infant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.[7][327][328] Despite these improvements, malnutrition is still common in the rural provinces.[154] Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that reached down to the hamlet level.[329] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.[154] In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the introduction of charges.[260] Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of nurses, midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report of Vietnamese Health Ministry.[330] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the US military during the war has left tangible, long-term impacts upon the Vietnamese people that still persists in the country until present.[331][332] For instance, it led to 3 million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of the area of Vietnam being defoliated.[333]


Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria, with the malaria mortality rate falling to about 5% of its 1990s equivalent by 2005, after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.[334]Tuberculosis (TB) cases however are on the rise which become the second most infectious diseases in the country after respiratory-related illness.[335] With an intensified vaccination program, better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and annual new TB infections.[336] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15% of health care expenses.[337] Along the same year, the United States announced that Vietnam would be one of 15 nations to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.[338] By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) with 9,554 have died.[339] The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher as on average as between 40–50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population is estimated to be infected with HIV and the figure has remained stable since 2005.[340] More global aid are being delivered through The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the diseases in the country.[336] In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eating dog and cat meat as it can cause other diseases like rabies and leptospirosis as more than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi are found to be selling both meats. The decision received positive comments among Vietnamese society on social media despite many still disagreed as it has been a habit that couldn't be resisted.[341]


Education


Main article: Education in Vietnam




Indochina Medical College in Hanoi, the first modern university in Vietnam



Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges and universities and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the national literacy rate, which stood at 90% in 2008.[342] Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the country education system continuously undergoing a series of reform by the government. Basic education in the country is relatively free for the poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fee for their children without some form of public or private assistance.[343] Regardless, school enrolment is among the highest in the world,[344][345] and the number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provide subsidised loans for students through national bank although there are deep concerns about its access as well the burdens among students in repaying.[346][347]





RMIT Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh City campus.


Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.[348] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including Harvard University (USA) and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy to operate independently without a ministry control above their heads are in its final stages of approval with the government will continue to investing in education especially for the poor to have access on basic education.[349]


Demographics


Main articles: Demographics of Vietnam, Vietnamese people, and Ethnic groups in Vietnam




Cultural dance performed by one of 54 recognised Vietnamese ethnic groups.










Population[5]
Year
Million
195024.8
200080.3
201694.6

As of 2016[update], the population of Vietnam standing at approximately 94.6 million people.[5] The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.[350] In 2012, the country's population was estimated at approximately 90.3 million.[351] Based on the 2009 census, 70.4% of the Vietnamese population are living in rural areas while only 29.6% living in urban areas although the average growth rate of the urban population have recently increasing which mainly attributed to migration and rapid urbanisation.[352] The dominant Viet or Kinh ethnic group constituted nearly 73.6 million people or 85.8% of the population,[351] with most of their population is concentrated mainly in the alluvial deltas and coastal plains of the country. As a majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.[353] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to other 54 ethnic minority groups, including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thai and Nùng.[351] Many ethnic minorities such as the Muong who are closely related to the Kinh dwell in the highlands which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory.[354]


Other uplanders in the north migrated from southern China between 1300s and 1800s.[355] Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (including over 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.[356][357] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.[353][355] Throughout Vietnam history, many Chinese people mainly from South China migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees.[358] Since the reunification in 1976 with the increase of communist policies nationwide that resulting the nationalisation of property and subsequently causing many rich people property in the city especially among the Hoa in the south are being confiscated by the government, this has led many of them to leave Vietnam.[359][360] Furthermore, with the deteriorating Sino-Vietnamese relations as a result of border invasion by Chinese government in 1979 which added by doubtful among Vietnamese society on the Chinese government intention had indirectly causing more Hoa people in the north to leave the country.[358][361]


Urbanisation


See also: List of cities in Vietnam



Panorama of the Vietnamese city with high urbanisation rate


Ho Chi Minh City metro panorama, the city in Vietnam with the highest urbanisation rate.






District 1, Ho Chi Minh City.


The number of people live in urbanised area in 2017 is estimated to be around 32.753 million of people (with urbanisation rate at 35.7%).[362] Since 1986, Vietnam's urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic program, changing the system into socialist and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.[363] The Vietnamese government through its construction ministry forecasts that the country will have a 45% urbanisation rates by 2020 with urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth as any country with higher urbanisation rates would have a higher growth rate of GDP.[364] Furthermore, the urbanisation movements in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large population of in-migrants mainly due to better weather and economic opportunities.[365]




Parts of Hanoi urbanisation as seen from Trúc Bạch Lake.


A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standards of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas which also leads to changing in economic structures. In 1985, agriculture took up 37.2% of Vietnam’s GDP; nevertheless, in 2008, that number went down to 18.5%, a decreasing of 18.7%.[366] In 1985, industry took only a small fraction of Vietnam GDP, around 26.2%. But in 2008, that number has increased up to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services which increase people’s standards of living. Access to electricity has increased tremendously from 14% of total households having electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.[366] In terms of accessing to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies show that only 12% of households in the area covered by the companies had access to the water network in 2002. By 2007, more than 70% of the population in the area was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, air and water pollution.[366]


Since Vietnam has a big consumption of mopeds in their transportation due to the relatively cheap and easy to commute, large numbers of mopeds have been known for causing traffic and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the consumption of mopeds has increased from 0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.[366] With the rapid development, factories have sprung up rapidly which indirectly polluting air and water as been exampled from the 2016 Vietnam marine life disaster caused by the Formosa Ha Tinh Steel Company which killing many fish and marine habitats in Vietnamese waters and directly causing major losses to the country economy.[367] There are some government's interventions and solutions trying to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation and having more regulations for factories to handle their wastes. Although the authorities also have a time schedules for collecting different types of waste, waste disposal have become another problem of urbanisation since the amount of solid waste generated in urban areas has increased unimaginably by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste alone, took up 181% of that 200%. One of the government’s efforts is trying to promote campaigns to encourage the locals to sort household waste since waste sorting are still not been practised entirely by most Vietnamese society.[368]































































































 

  • v

  • t

  • e


Largest cities and municipalities in Vietnam
Vietnam General Statistics Office (2015)



Rank

Name

Region

Pop.

Rank

Name

Region
 Pop.

Hồ Chí Minh City
Hồ Chí Minh City
Hà Nội
Hà Nội
1Hồ Chí Minh CityMunicipality Region8,146,30011Buôn Ma ThuộtĐắk Lắk340,000

Hải Phòng
Hải Phòng
Đà Nẵng
Đà Nẵng
2Hà NộiMunicipality Region7,216,00012HuếThừa Thiên–Huế333,715
3Hải PhòngMunicipality Region1,763,00013Thái NguyênThái Nguyên330,000
4Đà NẵngMunicipality Region1,328,00014Vũng TàuBà Rịa–Vũng Tàu327,000
5Cần ThơMunicipality Region1,248,00015Quy NhơnBình Định311,000
6Biên HòaĐồng Nai1,104,49516Long XuyênAn Giang280,300
7Nha TrangKhánh Hòa Province792,39717Việt TrìPhú Thọ277,539
8VinhNghệ An490,00018Bắc NinhBắc Ninh272,634
9Hải DươngHải Dương403,89319Thủ Dầu MộtBình Dương271,000
10Đà LạtLâm Đồng356,39320Thái BìnhThái Bình270,000

Religion


Main article: Religion in Vietnam























Religion in Vietnam (2014)[2]



  Vietnamese folk religion or not religious population (73.2%)


  Buddhism (12.2%)


  Catholicism (6.8%)


  Caodaism (4.8%)


  Protestantism (1.5%)


  Hoahaoism (1.4%)


  Others (0.1%)



Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy freedom of belief and religion,[369] which means that they can follow any religion or be irreligious and that all religions are equal before the law and that each place of worship is protected under Vietnamese state law, but religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.[369][370] According to a survey in 2007, 81% of the Vietnamese people do not believe in a god.[371] Based on new government findings in 2009, the number of religious people has increased by 932,000.[352] Through the latest official statistics presented by the Vietnamese government to the United Nations special rapporteur in 2014,[2] the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million from the total population of almost 90 million.[2] Formally recognised religious communities include 11 million Buddhists, 6.2 million Catholics, 1.4 million Protestants, 4.4 million Caodaisms followers, 1.3 million Hoahaoism Buddhists as well as 75,000 Muslims, 7,000 Baha'ís and 1,500 Hindus.[2]


Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism among the Kinh majority who follows religion, while Theravāda are practised in almost entirely by the Khmer minority. About 7% of the population are Christians, totalling around six million Roman Catholics and one million Protestants.[2] Catholicism have been introduced to Vietnam by nearby Portuguese missionaries (Jesuits) from Portuguese Macau and Malacca towards Annam and from remnants of the persecuted Japanese Catholic between the 16th and 17th centuries before being massively propagated by French missionaries aided by Spanish missionaries (Dominicans) from neighbouring Spanish East Indies towards Tonkin in the 19th and 20th centuries.[372][373][374] A significant number of Vietnamese people are also adherents of Caodaism, an indigenous folk religion which has structured itself on the model of the Catholic Church together with another Buddhist section of Hoahaoism.[375] Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries throughout the modern civil war,[376] where it was largely accepted among the highland Montagnards of South Vietnam.[377] The largest Protestant churches are the Southern Evangelical Church of Vietnam (SECV) and the Evangelical Church of Vietnam North (ECVN) with around 770,000 of the country Protestants come from members of ethnic minorities.[376] Although it is one of the country minority religion and has a shorter history than Catholicism, Protestantism are found to be the country's fastest-growing religion, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.[376][378] Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these includes Bani, Sunni and non-denominational section of Islam which is primarily practised among the ethnic Cham minority,[379] though there were also a few Kinh adherents of Islam along with other minority adherents of Baha'is as well Hindus among the Cham's.[380][381]


Languages





Vietnamese language books in a bookstore in Ho Chi Minh City.


The official national language of the country is Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt), a tonal Austroasiatic languages (Mon–Khmer) which is spoken by the majority of the population. In its early history, Vietnamese writing used Chinese characters before a different meaning set of Chinese characters known as Chữ nôm developed between the 7th–13th century.[382][383][384] The folk epic Truyện Kiều ("The Tale of Kieu", originally known as Đoạn trường tân thanh) by Nguyễn Du was written in Chữ nôm.[385]Quốc ngữ as the romanised Vietnamese alphabet used for spoken Vietnamese, was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit Alexandre de Rhodes and several other Catholic missionaries by using the alphabets of Romance languages, particularly the Portuguese alphabet which later became widely used through Vietnamese institutions during the French colonial period.[382][386] Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages, including Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng and Hmong. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct languages as their language is derived from both the Austroasiatic and Malayo-Polynesian language groups.[387] In recent years, a number of sign languages have developed in the major cities.




Traditional Vietnamese calligraphy.


The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among the older generation and those educated in the former South Vietnam, where it was a principal language in administration, education and commerce. Vietnam remains a full member of the International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education has revived some interest in the language.[388]Russian and to a much lesser extent German, Czech and Polish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.[389][390] With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.[391][392][393] The popularity of Japanese and Korean have also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.[394][395][396]


Culture


Main article: Culture of Vietnam




The Temple of Literature in Hanoi

The Temple of Literature in Hanoi



The Municipal Theatre in Ho Chi Minh City

The Municipal Theatre (Saigon Opera House) in Ho Chi Minh City



Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Đông Sơn culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.[29][32] Some elements of the national culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.[397][398] Vietnamese society is structured around làng (ancestral villages);[399] all Vietnamese mark a common ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.[400][401] The influence of Chinese culture such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien and Hainanese cultures are more evidenced in the north with the national religion of Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.[402] Despite this, there is also a Chinatown in the south such as in Chợ Lớn where many of the Chinese have intermarried with Kinh and are presently indistinguishable among them.[403] In the central and southern part, traces of Champa and Khmer culture are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the successor of the ancient Sa Huỳnh culture.[404][405] In recent centuries, the influence of Western cultures have become popular among newer Vietnamese generations.[398]




Vietnamese traditional white school uniform for girls in the country, the áo dài with the addition of nón lá, a conical hat.


The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa); in which family and community values are highly regarded.[402] Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,[406] such as the Vietnamese dragon which is derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam's national father, Lạc Long Quân is depicted as a holy dragon.[400][407][408] The lạc is a holy bird representing Vietnamese national mother of Âu Cơ is another prominent symbol, while turtle, buffalo and horse images are also revered.[409] Many Vietnamese also believes in supernatural and spiritualism where illness could be brought on by a curse or sorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic where it needs to be treated through traditional medical practitioners, amulets and other forms of spiritual protection where religious practices may be employed to treating the ill person.[410] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs.[398] For many decades, foreign cultural influences especially those of Western origin were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media.[411]


The main Vietnamese formal dress, the áo dài is worn for special occasions such as in weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include the áo tứ thân, a four-piece woman's dress; the áo ngũ, a form of the thân in 5-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman's undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women; the áo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the áo the, a variant of the áo gấm worn by grooms at weddings.[412][413] Traditional headwear includes the standard conical nón lá and the "lampshade-like" nón quai thao.[413][414] In tourism, a number of popular cultural tourist destinations include the former imperial capital of Hué, the World Heritage Sites of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Hội An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the Marble Mountains.[415][416]


Literature


Main articles: Vietnamese literature, Vietnamese poetry, and Vietnamese fairy tales




Vietnamese dragon on Emperor Khải Định's c. 1917 scroll in British Library collection.


Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition of folk literature based on the typical 6–to-8-verse poetic form named ca dao which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[417] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th century Ngô dynasty, with notable ancient authors including Nguyễn Trãi, Trần Hưng Đạo, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nói in ca trù.[418] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the tao đàn. Vietnamese literature has in recent times been influenced by Western styles, with the first literary transformation movement of thơ mới emerging in 1932.[419] Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exist in many versions, passed down orally and have unknown authors. Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.[420] They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ), culture heroes (Sơn Tinh and Thủy Tinh) which is referred as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.[403][421]


Music


Main article: Music of Vietnam




Vietnamese boy band Monstar

Vietnamese boy band, Monstar.



Sơn Tùng M-TP, Vietnamese rapper and singer


Sơn Tùng M-TP, Vietnamese rapper and singer.




Bolero music has gained its position in the country since 1930s, albeit with a different style from a combination between traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.[422] However, the modern Vietnamese music industry, known as V-pop, is currently making its mark in the entertainment field. Many Vietnamese artists have started to collaborate with foreign artists and producers, especially South Korean, to facilitate the entrance of K-pop into the Vietnamese market while also promoting V-pop overseas.[423] For example, in 2014, the South Korean seven-member boy band BTS (방탄소년단) collaborated with Vietnamese singer Thanh Bùi on the single called "Danger".[423][424] In 2018, South Korean artist and idol Park Ji-yeon (박지연) collaborated with Soobin Hoàng Sơn in two versions of the title track called "Between Us" (Vietnamese: Đẹp Nhất Là Em; Korean: 우리사이) to promote the two countries’ partnership in terms of the music industry.[425]V Live, which is a South Korean live video streaming service also collaborated with RBW Entertainment Vietnam (a subsidiary of the Korean entertainment company) to produce Vietnamese-based shows. V Live also launched special monthly mini-concerts called "V Heartbeat Live" to connect V-pop and K-pop idols.[426] Furthermore, South Korean entertainment company SM Entertainment signed an agreement with IPP Group to advance into the country’s market and promote joint business.[427] The company held its 2018 Global Audition in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in search for new talents among the Vietnamese youth.[428]





Ca trù trio performance in northern Vietnam


Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions.[429] Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical music can be traced since the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.[430] Throughout its history, Vietnamese has been the most heavily impacted by the Chinese musical tradition as an integral part along with Japan, Korea and Mongolia.[431]Nhã nhạc is the most popular form of imperial court music, Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical theatre while Xẩm or hát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamese folk music. Quan họ (alternate singing) is popular in the former Hà Bắc Province (which is now divided into Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang Provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music called Hát chầu văn or hát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. Nhạc dân tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamese folk music which arose in the 1950s while ca trù (also known as hát ả đào) is a popular folk music. "Hò" can not be thought of as the southern style of quan họ. There are a range of traditional instruments, including the đàn bầu (a monochord zither), the đàn gáo (a two-stringed fiddle with coconut body), and the đàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moon lute. In recent times, there have been some efforts to mixing Vietnamese traditional music especially folk music with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educating the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing styles.[432]


Cuisine


Main article: Vietnamese cuisine



Some of the notable Vietnamese cuisine, clockwise from top-right: phở noodle, chè thái fruit dessert, chả giò spring roll and bánh mì sandwich.


Vietnamese cuisine traditionally features a combination of five fundamental taste "elements" (Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (earth).[433] Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chilli, lime and basil leaves.[434] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables where it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.[435] The use of such meats as pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past, and as a result freshwater fish, crustaceans particularly crabs and molluscs became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. There is an estimate of 40 Vietnamese dishes with many are usually served as a norm in the country street food culture.[436] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as bánh cuốn (ride noodle roll), bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) and phở noodles are originated from the north and were carried to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.[437][438] Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.[439]Black pepper is used in place of chillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south also are usually served cold with ice cube especially during the annual hot seasons compared to the north where hot drinks are much more preferable in colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include cà phê đá (Vietnamese iced coffee), cà phê trứng (egg coffee), chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice), cơm rượu (glutinous rice wine), nước mía (sugarcane juice) and trà sen (Vietnamese lotus tea).[440]


Media


Main article: Media of Vietnam




Vietnam Television (VTV), the main state television


Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government in accordance with the 2004 Law on Publication.[441] It is generally perceived that the country media sector is controlled by the government to follow the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.[442][443] The Voice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website while Vietnam Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has extensively regulated public internet access using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[444] The collaborative project OpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",[445] while Reporters Without Borders (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".[446] Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexual explicit content, many political and religious sensitive websites that was deemed to be undermining state authority are also being blocked.[447]


Holidays and festivals


Main articles: Public holidays in Vietnam and List of festivals in Vietnam



Special Tết decoration in the country seen during the holiday


The country has eleven national recognised holidays which includes the New Year's Day on 1 January, Vietnamese New Year (Tết) from last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the first lunar month, Hung Kings Commemorations on 10th day of the third lunar month, Day of liberating the South for national reunification on 30 April, International Workers' Day on 1 May and National Day Celebration on 2 September.[448][449][450] During Tết, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and praying for dead ancestors.[451][452] Older people will usually give the young a lì xì (red envelope) while special holiday food of bánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety of dried fruits as the festival sweets are presented in the house for visitors.[453] Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons in a year including the Lantern Festival (Tết Nguyên Tiêu), Mid-Autumn Festival (Tết Trung Thu) and various temple and nature festivals.[454] In the highlands, Elephant Race Festival are held annually during the spring where riders will ride their elephants for about 1.6 kilometres with the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.[455]Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular and are often celebrated by expatriate Vietnamese in Western countries.[456] In Vietnam, the dressing have been influenced by Western styles with the wearing of white wedding dresses and black tuxedos although there were also many who still preferring to choose Vietnamese traditional wedding costumes for traditional ceremonies.[457]


Sports


Main articles: Sport in Vietnam and List of Vietnamese traditional games

The Vovinam, kim ke and bình định martial arts are widespread in Vietnam,[458][459] while football is the country's most popular sport.[460] Its national team won the ASEAN Football Championship twice in 2008 and 2018 and reaching the quarter-finals of 2019 AFC Asian Cup,[461][462][463] its junior team of under-23 became the runners-up of 2018 AFC U-23 Championship and reach fourth place in 2018 Asian Games while the under-20 managed to qualify the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup for the first time in their football history.[464][465] Its women team also dominating the Southeast Asian Games with main rival of Thailand. Other Western sports such as badminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952 when it competed as the State of Vietnam. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, attending every Summer Olympics from 1988 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979.[466] Vietnam has never participated in the Winter Olympic Games. In 2016, Vietnam participated in the 2016 Summer Olympics where they won their first gold medal.[467] In 2020, Vietnam will host the inaugural Formula One Vietnam Grand Prix in the city of Hanoi.[468]


See also




  • Index of Vietnam-related articles

  • Outline of Vietnam


Footnotes




  1. ^ Communist Party of Vietnam 2004.


  2. ^ abcdef Bielefeldt 2014.


  3. ^ Jeffries 2007, p. 4.


  4. ^ Constitution of Vietnam 2014.


  5. ^ abc United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.


  6. ^ abcdefg International Monetary Fund.


  7. ^ ab World Bank 2016a.


  8. ^ Human Development Report 2018, p. 23.


  9. ^ Jones 2011, p. 532.


  10. ^ Cham 2012.


  11. ^ Taylor, Keith (1983). The birth of Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. xvii. ISBN 978-0520074170..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em


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Notes and references


Notes




  1. ^ Also called Kinh people.[1]


  2. ^ In effect since 1 January 2014.[4]


  3. ^ The South China Sea is referred to in Vietnam as the East Sea (Biển Đông).[10]


  4. ^ ab At first, Gia Long requested the name "Nam Việt", but the Jiaqing Emperor refused.[12][15]


  5. ^ Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam; however, the French accepted the Việt Minh proposal[101] that Vietnam be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions".[102] The United States, with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom, countered with the "American Plan",[103] which provided for United Nations-supervised unification elections. The plan, however, was rejected by Soviet and other communist delegations.[104]


  6. ^ See List of countries and dependencies by area.



References


Print


.mw-parser-output .refbeginfont-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ullist-style-type:none;margin-left:0.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>ddmargin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100font-size:100%


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  • Tonnesson, Stein (2011). Vietnam 1946: How the War Began. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26993-4.


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  • Muehlenbeck, Philip Emil; Muehlenbeck, Philip (2012). Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-1852-1.


  • Rabett, Ryan J. (2012). Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic: Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour During the Late Quaternary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01829-7.


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  • Chico, Beverly (2013). Hats and Headwear around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-063-8.


  • Boobbyer, Claire; Spooner, Andrew (2013). Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos Footprint Handbook. Footprint Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-907263-64-4.


  • Fröhlich, Holger L.; Schreinemachers, Pepijn; Stahr, Karl; Clemens, Gerhard (2013). Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-33377-4.


  • Willbanks, James H. (2013). Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-62636-528-5.


  • Choy, Lee Khoon (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-49-9.


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  • Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2013). Water Resources and Food Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-319-02198-0.


  • Lim, David (2014). Economic Growth and Employment in Vietnam. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-81859-5.


  • Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-2303-5.


  • Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014). China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28248-3.


  • de Mora, Javier Calvo; Wood, Keith (2014). Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-80333-1.


  • Eggleston, Michael A. (2014). Exiting Vietnam: The Era of Vietnamization and American Withdrawal Revealed in First-Person Accounts. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7772-2.


  • Dennell, Robin; Porr, Martin (2014). Southern Asia, Australia, and the Search for Human Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-72913-1.


  • Hong Lien, Vu; Sharrock, Peter (2014). Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-388-8.


  • Gibbons, William Conrad (2014). The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships, Part III: 1965-1966. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6153-8.


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  • Duy Hinh, Nguyen; Dinh Tho, Tran (2015). The South Vietnamese Society. Normanby Press. ISBN 978-1-78625-513-6.


  • Yao, Alice (2016). The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936734-4.


  • Howe, Brendan M. (2016). Post-Conflict Development in East Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-07740-4.


  • Thanh Hai, Do (2016). Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-39820-2.


  • Phuong Linh, Huynh Thi (2016). State-Society Interaction in Vietnam. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-90719-6.


  • Ozolinš, Janis Talivaldis (2016). Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East and West Perspectives. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-25724-2.


  • Howard, Michael C. (2016). Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-2440-2.


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  • Travel, DK (2017). DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Vietnam and Angkor Wat. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-30136-4.


  • Moïse, Edwin E. (2017). Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7445-5.


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  • Kort, Michael (2017). The Vietnam War Re-Examined. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-04640-5.


  • Trieu Dan, Nguyen (2017). A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve Generations on the Banks of the Hat River. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-8779-0.


  • Tran, Tri C.; Le, Tram (2017). Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1956-7.


  • Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2017). Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin. Springer. ISBN 978-981-10-5613-0.


  • Zhu, Ying; Ren, Shuang; Collins, Ngan; Warner, Malcolm (2017). Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-56749-3.


  • Lamport, Mark A. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9.


  • Dinh Tham, Nguyen (2018). Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-1882-3.


  • Dayley, Robert (2018). Southeast Asia in the New International Era. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-97424-3.


  • Chen, Steven (2018). The Design Imperative: The Art and Science of Design Management. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-78568-4.



Legislation, case law and government source





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  • French Senate (1997). "Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 1er octobre 1997" (in French). Senate (France).


  • Vietnam Penal Code (1999). "Penal Code (No. 15/1999/QH10)". Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.


  • Vietnam National Assembly (2004). "Law on Publication (No. 30/2004/QH11)". Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 18 December 2011.


  • Vietnam Ordinance of Beliefs and Religion (2004). "Ordinance of Beliefs and Religion [No. 21]". Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 14 October 2018.


  • United States Department of State (2005). "International Religious Freedom Report 2006". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. United States Department of State.


  • United States Department of State (2006). "U.S. Humanitarian Mine Action Programs: Asia". United States Department of State.


  • Trung Chien, Tran Thi (2006). "Vietnam Health Report" (PDF). Ministry of Health (Vietnam). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2018.


  • Nielsen, Chantal Pohl (2007). "Vietnam's Rice Policy: Recent Reforms and Future Opportunities" (PDF). AgroInfo. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018.


  • Vietnam Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (2007). "Vietnamese general company of rubber-prospect of being a foremost Vietnamese agriculture group". AgroViet Newsletter. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 21 February 2008.


  • Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2007). "Vietnam Foreign Policy". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 18 January 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2009.


  • Vietnam General Statistics Office (2009a). "MEDIA RELEASE: The 2009 Population and Housing Census". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Ministry of Planning and Investment (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 13 November 2010.


  • Vietnam General Statistics Office (2010). "Transport, Postal Services and Telecommunications". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Ministry of Planning and Investment (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 6 October 2018.


  • Fong-Sam, Yolanda (2010). "2010 Minerals Yearbook [The Mineral Industry of Vietnam]" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 March 2013.


  • Taylor, Claire; Rutherford, Tom (2011). "Military Balance in Southeast Asia [Research Paper 11/79]" (PDF). House of Commons Library.


  • Vietnam General Statistics Office (2011). "Monthly statistical information – Social and economic situation, 8 months of 2011 [Traffic accidents]". General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Ministry of Planning and Investment (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 6 October 2018.


  • Green, Michael (2012). "Foreign policy and diplomatic representation". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.


  • National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (2012). "Bộ Luật Lao Động (No. 10/2012/QH13)" (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Justice (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 16 October 2018.


  • Australia Special Broadcasting Service (2013). "Key ingredients: Vietnamese". Special Broadcasting Service, Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018.


  • Canada Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration (2013). "Vietnam [The Full Picture of Vietnam]" (PDF). Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration (Canada), Government of Ontario. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2018.


  • Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2013). "General Information about Countries and Regions [List of countries which maintains diplomatic relations with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (as April 2010)]". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam).


  • Vietnam Culture Information Network (2014). "Nha Trang city: Vietnamese cultural cuisine festival 2014 opens". Centre of Information and Technology - Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Vietnam).


  • Vietnam Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (2014). "Conquering the Fansipan". VIR. Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.


  • Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014). "Continue moving forward with intensive international integration". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam).


  • Vietnam General Statistics Office (2015). "Số liệu thống kê - Danh sách". General Statistics Office of Vietnam (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Planning and Investment (Vietnam).


  • Government of the Netherlands (2016). "Minister Schultz signs agreement on water treatment project in Vietnam". Government of the Netherlands.


  • Garamone, Jim (2016). "Lifting Embargo Allows Closer U.S., Vietnam Cooperation, Obama, Carter Say". United States Department of Defense.


  • United Kingdom Department for International Development (2017). "UK aid helps clear lethal landmines in war-torn countries following generosity of British public". Government of the United Kingdom.


  • Government of the Netherlands (2018). "Speech by Cora van Nieuwenhuizen, Minister of Infrastructure and Water Management, at the celebration of 45 years of bilateral relations with Vietnam, Hilton Hotel The Hague, 26 March 2018". Government of the Netherlands.


  • Russia Ministry of Defence (2018). "Russia and Vietnam draft International Military Activity Plan 2020". Ministry of Defence (Russia).


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  • Anh, Van (2018). "Vietnam and Netherlands reaffirm economic relations". Vietnam Investment Review. Ministry of Planning and Investment (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 16 January 2019.


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  • Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. "An Overview of Spatial Policy in Asian and European Countries". Local Governments and Spatial Planning System. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (Japan).CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


  • United States Agency for International Development. "Environmental Remediation [Agent Orange]". United States Agency for International Development.


  • Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "Tài Liệu Cơ Bản Nước Cộng Hoà Hồi Giáo Pa-kít-xtan" (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam).


  • Vietnam National Environment Administration. "Báo cáo Hiện trạng môi trường quốc gia 2005 Chuyên đề Đa dạng sinh học" (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Vietnam). Archived from the original on 23 February 2009.


Academic publications





  • Crozier, Brian (1955). "The Diem Regime in Southern Vietnam". Far Eastern Survey, Institute of Pacific Relations. 24 (4): 49–56. doi:10.2307/3023970. JSTOR 3023970.


  • Gittinger, J. Price (1959). "Communist Land Policy in North Viet Nam". Far Eastern Survey, Institute of Pacific Relations. 28 (8): 113–126. doi:10.2307/3024603. JSTOR 3024603.


  • van Khè, Tran (1972). "Means of Preservation and Diffusion of Traditional Music in Vietnam". Asian Music, University of Texas Press. 3 (1): 40–44. doi:10.2307/834104. JSTOR 834104.


  • Riehl, Herbert; Augstein, Ernst (1973). "Surface interaction calculations over the Gulf of Tonkin". Tellus Institute. 25 (5): 424–434. doi:10.3402/tellusa.v25i5.9694.


  • Fraser, SE (1980). "Vietnam's first census". POPLINE. Intercom.


  • Higham, C.F.W. (1984). "Prehistoric Rice Cultivation in Southeast Asia". Scientific American, A Division of Nature America, Inc. 250 (4): 138–149. Bibcode:1984SciAm.250d.138H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0484-138. JSTOR 24969352.


  • Van Khê, Trân (1985). "Chinese Music and Musical Traditions of Eastern Asia". The World of Music, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Bildung. 27 (1): 78–90. JSTOR 43562680.


  • Gough, Kathleen (1986). "The Hoa in Vietnam". Contemporary Marxism, Social Justice/Global Options (12/13): 81–91. JSTOR 29765847.


  • Kimura, Tetsusaburo (1986). "Vietnam--Ten Years of Economic Struggle". Asian Survey, University of California Press. 26 (10): 1039–1055. doi:10.2307/2644255. JSTOR 2644255.


  • Quach Langlet, Tâm (1991). "Charles Fourniau : Annam-Tonkin 1885-1896. Lettrés et paysans vietnamiens face à la conquête coloniale. Travaux du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisations de la péninsule Indochinoise". Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient (in French). 78 – via Persée.
    Free to read


  • Huu Chiem, Nguyen (1993). "Geo-Pedological Study of the Mekong Delta" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. 31 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Kyoto University.


  • Thayer, Carlyle A. (1994). "Sino-Vietnamese Relations: The Interplay of Ideology and National Interest". University of California Press. 34 (6): 513–528. JSTOR 2645338.


  • Greenfield, Gerard (1994). "The Development of Capitalism in Vietnam". Socialist Register. Archived from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.


  • Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Manh Loi, Vu (1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate". Population and Development Review, Population Council. 21 (4): 783–812. doi:10.2307/2137774. JSTOR 2137774.


  • Goodkind, Daniel (1995). "Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam Since Reunification". Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia. 68 (3): 342–359. doi:10.2307/2761129. JSTOR 2761129.


  • Amer, Ramses (1996). "Vietnam's Policies and the Ethnic Chinese since 1975". Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. 11 (1): 76–104. JSTOR 41056928.


  • Momoki, Shiro (1996). "A Short Introduction to Champa Studies" (PDF). Kyoto University Research Information Repository, Kyoto University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2018 – via COnnecting REpositories.


  • Jacques, Roland (1998). "Le Portugal et la romanisation de la langue vietnamienne. Faut- il réécrire l'histoire ?". Outre-Mers. Revue d'Histoire (in French). 318 – via Persée.
    Free to read


  • Zinoman, Peter (2000). "Colonial Prisons and Anti-Colonial Resistance in French Indochina: The Thai Nguyen Rebellion, 1917". Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press. 34 (1): 57–98. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00003590. JSTOR 313112.


  • Xuan Dinh, Quan (2000). "The Political Economy of Vietnam's Transformation Process". Contemporary Southeast Asia, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. 22 (2): 360–388. doi:10.1355/CS22-2G. JSTOR 25798497.


  • Matsumura, Hirofumi; Lan Cuong, Nguyen; Kim Thuy, Nguyen; Anezaki, Tomoko (2001). "Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic Da But and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie, E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 83 (1): 59–73. JSTOR 25757578.


  • Endres, Kirsten W. (2001). "Local Dynamics of Renegotiating Ritual Space in Northern Vietnam: The Case of the "Dinh"". Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. 16 (1): 70–101. JSTOR 41057051.


  • McLeod, Mark W.; Thi Dieu, Nguyen (2001). Culture and Customs of Vietnam (PDF). Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30485-9. ISSN 1097-0738. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2019.


  • Gallup, John Luke (2002). "The wage labor market and inequality in Viet Nam in the 1990s". Policy Research Working Paper Series, World Bank. Policy Research Working Papers. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-2896 – via Research Papers in Economics.


  • Wai-ming, Ng (2002). "The Impact of Japanese Comics and Animation in Asia" (PDF). Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry – via Chinese University of Hong Kong.


  • Freeman, Nick J. (2002). "United States's economic sanctions against Vietnam: International business and development repercussions". The Columbia Journal of World Business. 28 (2): 12–22. doi:10.1016/0022-5428(93)90038-Q.


  • Wilkey, Robert Neil (2002). "Vietnam's Antitrust Legislation and Subscription to E-ASEAN: An End to the Bamboo Firewall Over Internet Regulation". The John Marshall Journal of Information Technology and Privacy Law. 20 (4).


  • Wagstaff, Adam; van Doorslaer, Eddy; Watanabe, Naoko (2003). "On decomposing the causes of health sector inequalities with an application to malnutrition inequalities in Vietnam". Journal of Econometrics. 112 (1): 207–223. doi:10.1016/S0304-4076(02)00161-6.


  • Van Tho, Tran (2003). "Economic development in Vietnam during the second half of the 20th century: How to avoid the danger of lagging behind" (PDF). The Vietnamese Economy: Awakening the Dorming Dragon (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018 – via Waseda University.


  • Miguel, Edward; Roland, Gérard (2005). "The Long Run Impact of Bombing Vietnam" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.


  • Manyin, Mark E. (2005). "U.S. Assistance to Vietnam" (PDF). Congressional Research Service reports. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2018 – via Federation of American Scientists.


  • Van Nam, Nguyen; de Vries, Peter J.; Van Toi, Le; Nagelkerke, Nico (2005). "Malaria control in Vietnam: the Binh Thuan experience". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 10 (4): 357–365. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01387.x. PMID 15807800 – via Wiley Online Library.


  • Berg, M; Stengel, C; Pham, TK; Pham, HV; et al. (2007). "Magnitude of arsenic pollution in the Mekong and Red River Deltas--Cambodia and Vietnam". Science of the Total Environment. 372 (2–3): 413–25. Bibcode:2007ScTEn.372..413B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.010. PMID 17081593.


  • Zuckerman, Phil (2007). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns" (PDF). Cambridge Companion to Atheism, Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2009 – via Pitzer College.


  • Odell, Andrew L.; Castillo, Marlene F. (2008). "Vietnam in a Nutshell: An Historical, Political and Commercial Overview" (PDF). NYBSA International Law Practicum. 21 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018 – via Duane Morris.


  • Matsumura, Hirofumi; Yoneda, Minoru; Yukio, Dodo; Oxenham, Marc; et al. (2008). "Terminal Pleistocene human skeleton from Hang Cho Cave, northern Vietnam: implications for the biological affinities of Hoabinhian people". Anthropological Science. 116 (3): 201–217. doi:10.1537/ase.070416. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via J-STAGE.


  • Van De, Nguyen; Douglas, Ian; McMorrow, Julia; Lindley, Sarah; et al. (2008). "Erosion and Nutrient Loss on Sloping Land under Intense Cultivation in Southern Vietnam". Geographical Research. 46 (1): 4–16. doi:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2007.00487.x – via Wiley Online Library.


  • Nasuchon, Nopparat (2008). "Coastal Management and Community Management in Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand, with a case study of Thai Fisheries Management" (PDF). United Nations-Nippon Foundation Fellow Research Presentation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via United Nations.


  • Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J L; Gakidou, Emmanuela (2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme [Table 3]". BMJ. 336 (7659): 1482–6. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045.


  • Hoang Vuong, Quan; Dung Tran, Tri (2009). "The Cultural Dimensions of the Vietnamese Private Entrepreneurship". The IUP Journal of Entrepreneurship and Development. SSRN 1442384 – via Social Science Research Network.


  • Lieberman, Samuel S.; Wagstaff, Adam (2009). Health financing and delivery in Vietnam. World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7782-6. ISBN 978-0-8213-7782-6.


  • Cuong Le, Duc; Kubo, Tatsuhiko; Fujino, Yoshihisa; Minh Pham, Truong; et al. (2010). "Health Care System in Vietnam: Current Situation and Challenges". Asian Pacific Journal of Disease Management. 4 (2). Archived from the original on 5 October 2018 – via J-STAGE.


  • Cira, Dean; Dastur, Arish; Kilroy, Austin; Lozano, Nancy; et al. (2011). "Vietnam Urbanization Review". World Bank. doi:10.13140/2.1.5100.6249 – via ResearchGate.


  • Buiter, Willem; Rahbari, Ebrahim (2011). "Global growth generators: Moving beyond emerging markets and BRICs". Centre for Economic Policy Research. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018.


  • Pincus, Jonathan (2015). "Why Doesn't Vietnam Grow Faster?: State Fragmentation and the Limits of Vent for Surplus Growth" (PDF). Journal of Southeast Asian Economies. 32 (1): 26. doi:10.1355/ae32-1c. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2018 – via Flanders Investment and Trade.


  • Thomas, Martin (2012). Rubber, coolies and communists: In Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940 (Critical Perspectives on Empire from Part II - Colonial case studies: French, British and Belgian). Cambridge University Press. pp. 141–176. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139045643.009. ISBN 978-1-139-04564-3.


  • Nguyen, Ngan (2012). "How English Has Displaced Russian and Other Foreign Languages in Vietnam Since "Doi Moi"" (PDF). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 2 (23). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018.


  • Hong Phuong, Nguyen (2012). "Seismic Hazard Studies in Vietnam" (PDF). GEM Semi-Annual Meeting – Academia Sinica. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2018 – via Taiwan Earthquake Research Center.


  • McCaig, Brian; Pavcnik, Nina (2013). "Moving out of agriculture: structural change in Vietnam" (PDF). Dartmouth College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.


  • Chapman, Bruce; Liu, Amy Y.C. (2013). "Repayment Burdens of Student Loans for Vietnamese Higher Education". Crawford School Research Paper. SSRN 2213076 – via Social Science Research Network.


  • Huu Duc, Nguyen; Mai Hoa, Duong Thi; Thien Huong, Nguyen; Ngoc Bao, Nguyen (2013). "On Various Essential Data Related to Status Quo of Motorcycles in Vietnam". Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. 10. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018 – via J-STAGE.


  • Ngoc Vo, Anne; Le, V (2014). "Governmental influences on the evolution of agricultural cooperatives in Vietnam: an institutional perspective with case studies". Faculty of Business, University of Wollongong Research Online. 20 (3). Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018 – via University of Wollongong.


  • Banout, Jan; Urban, Ondrej; Musil, Vojtech; Szakova, Jirina; et al. (2014). "Agent Orange Footprint Still Visible in Rural Areas of Central Vietnam". Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2014: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2014/528965. PMC 3930020. PMID 24639878 – via United States National Library of Medicine.


  • Różycka-Tran, Joanna; Anh Tran, Quan (2014). "Self-regulation techniques in Vietnamese Zen Truc Lam Monastery" (PDF). Terebess Online. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2018.


  • Crook, Joe (2014). "Traveling Through Space: A Look at the Evolution of Transportation in Vietnam and its Implications". Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018 – via SIT Digital Collections.


  • Grigoreva, Nina V. (2014). "Legendary Ancestors, National Identity, and the Socialization of Children in Contemporary Vietnam" (PDF). Centre for Asian and African Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018.


  • Merola, R. B.; Hien, T. T.; Quyen, D. T. T.; Vengosh, A. (2014). "Arsenic exposure to drinking water in the Mekong Delta". Science of the Total Environment. 511: 544–552. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.511..544M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.091. PMID 25585157.


  • Ha Trân, Thi Thai (2014). "Education financing in Vietnam". Revue Internationale d'Éducation de Sèvres – via OpenEdition Journals.
    Free to read


  • Kim Phuong, Tran (2014). "Vietnam: Highland bauxite Projects and initial economic effects". Vietnam Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018 – via Metal Bulletin.


  • Tung Hieu, Ly (2015). "Confucian Influences on Vietnamese Culture". Vietnam Social Sciences. 5 (169). Archived from the original on 15 October 2018 – via Vietnam Journals Online.


  • Sohr, Alexander; Brockfeld, Elmar; Sauerländer, Anke; Melde, Eric (2016). "Traffic Information System for Hanoi". Procedia Engineering. 142: 221–228. Bibcode:2017ProEn.204...69B. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.035.


  • BirdLife International (2016). "Lophura edwardsi". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45354985A95145107.en.


  • Anh Ngo, Lan (2016). "Nguyễn-Catholic History (1770s-1890s) and the Gestation of Vietnamese Catholic National Identity" (PDF). Georgetown University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via DigitalGeorgetown.


  • Viet Trung, Le; Quoc Viet, Tran; Van Chat, Pham (2016). "An Overview of Vietnam's Oil and Gas Industry" (PDF). Petroleum Economics & Management. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2018 – via Vietnam Petroleum Institute.


  • Trinh, Q. M.; Nguyen, H. L.; Do, T. N.; Nguyen, V. N.; et al. (2016). "Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in Vietnam". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 46 (2): 12–22. doi:10.1016/0022-5428(93)90038-Q.


  • Nhu Nguyen, Quynh Thi (2016). "The Vietnamese Values System: A Blend of Oriental, Western and Socialist Values" (PDF). International Education Studies. 9 (12). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018 – via Institute of Education Sciences.


  • Feinberg, Richard E. (2016). "Principles and Power". Problems of Post-Communism. 63 (2): 75–83. doi:10.1080/10758216.2015.1083377 – via Taylor & Francis.


  • Linh Le, Thi Phuong; Anh Trinh, Tu (2016). "Encouraging Public Transport Use to Reduce Traffic Congestion and Air Pollutant: A Case Study of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam". Procedia Engineering. 142: 236–243. Bibcode:2017ProEn.204...69B. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.037.


  • Anh Dinh, Thuy (2016). "The Causes and Effects of Korean Pop Culture on Vietnamese Consumer Behavior" (PDF). Thammasat University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018.


  • Minh Hoang, Truong; van Lap, Nguyen; Kim Oanh, Ta Thi; Jiro, Takemura (2016). "The influence of delta formation mechanism on geotechnical property sequence of the late Pleistocene–Holocene sediments in the Mekong River Delta". Heliyon. 2 (11): e00165. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2016.e00165. PMC 5114594. PMID 27882357 – via United States National Library of Medicine.


  • Shaofei, YE; Guoqing, Zhang (2016). "The relationship between Nanyue and Annam in the ancient historical records of China and Vietnam". Honghe Prefecture Center for Vietnamese Studies, Honghe University – via CNKI Journal Translation Project.


  • Van Hoang, Chung (2017). "Evangelizing Post-Đổi Mới Vietnam: The Rise of Protestantism and the State's Response" (PDF) (34). ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. ISSN 2335-6677. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2018.


  • H. Dang, Hai-Anh; Glewwe, Paul W. (2017). "Well Begun, but Aiming Higher: A Review of Vietnam's Education Trends in the Past 20 Years and Emerging Challenges" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018 – via Research on Improving Systems of Education.


  • Baccini, Leonardo; Impullitti, Giammario; Malesky, Edmund J. (2017). "Globalization and State Capitalism: Assessing Vietnam's Accession to the WTO". CESifo Working Paper Series. SSRN 3036319 – via Social Science Research Network.


  • Hong Truong, Son; Ye, Qinghua; Stive, Marcel J. F. (2017). "Estuarine Mangrove Squeeze in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam". Journal of Coastal Research. 33 (4): 747–763. doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-16-00087.1 – via BioOne.


  • Nang Chung, Trinh; Giang Hai, Nguyen (2017). "Dong Son Culture in First Ten Centuries AD". Institute of Archaeology, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018.


  • Dang Vu, Hoai Nam; Nielsen, Martin Reinhardt (2018). "Understanding utilitarian and hedonic values determining the demand for rhino horn in Vietnam". Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 23 (5): 417–432. doi:10.1080/10871209.2018.1449038 – via Taylor & Francis.


  • Trương, Ngân (2018). "Solid Waste Management in Vietnam" (PDF). Degree Programme in Environmental Engineering. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2019.


  • Truong, Nhu; Vo, Dang H.; Nguyen, Dzung (2018). "Mekong State of Land" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Mekong Region Land Governance.


  • Quang Vinh, Bui. "Vietnam 2035: Toward Prosperity, Creativity, Equity, and Democracy" (PDF). George Washington University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2018.


  • Cornell University. "Rice in Vietnamese Culture and Economy". Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies - Southeast Asia Program.


  • Van Van, Hoang. "The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in Vietnam" (PDF). 22 (1). Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018.


News and magazines





  • The Harvard Crimson (1972). "Med School Professor Praises North Vietnam's Medical Care". The Harvard Crimson.


  • The New York Times (3 July 1976). "2 Parts of Vietnam Officially Reunited; Leadership Chosen". The New York Times.


  • Spokesman-Review (1977). "Vietnam outlines collectivization goals". The Spokesman-Review.


  • Swanson, Susan (1978). "Vietnamese Celebrate 'Women's Day' in Old and New Ways". The Washington Post.


  • Cockburn, Patrick (1994). "US finally ends Vietnam embargo". The Independent.


  • Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times.


  • Mitchell, Alison (12 July 1995). "Opening to Vietnam: The Overview; U.S. Grants Vietnam Full Ties; Time for Healing, Clinton Says". The New York Times.


  • BBC News (1997). "Vietnam: changing of the guard". BBC News.


  • BBC News (2004). "Vietnam's new-look economy". BBC News.


  • BBC News (2005). "The legacy of Agent Orange". BBC News.


  • DigInfo (2007). "TOSY TOPIO - Table Tennis Playing Robot". DigInfo. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009.


  • China Daily (2008). "Vietnam win first int'l title". China Daily. Sina English.


  • The Economist (2008). "A bit of everything [Vietnam's quest for role models]". The Economist. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2018.


  • Vietnam+ (2008). "High speed railway engineers to be trained in Japan". Vietnam+.


  • Khanh, Vu (2008). "Cultural values of traditional Vietnamese wedding". Sài Gòn Giải Phóng.


  • BBC News (2009). "Vietnam lawyer charged with subversion". BBC News.


  • Mydans, Seth (24 December 2009). "Vietnam Charges Lawyer With Capital Crime". The New York Times.


  • The Japan Times (2009). "Vietnam opts for Japanese bullet trains". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times.


  • Corapi, Annie (2010). "The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines". CNN Health.


  • Borel, Brooke (2010). "A Ping-Pong-Playing Terminator". Popular Science.


  • Huong, Minh (2010). "Folk poetry preservation a labour of love". Việt Nam News.


  • Thanh Niên (2010). "Vietnam's 2010 growth fastest in three years". Thanh Niên.


  • Việt Nam News (2010). "Tech, science spending too low". Việt Nam News.


  • Nguyen, Andrea (2011). "Heaven in a Bowl: The Original *Pho*". Saveur.


  • Gillet, Kit (2011). "Riding Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh trail". The Guardian.


  • Kinver, Mark (2011). "Javan rhino 'now extinct in Vietnam'". BBC News.


  • Nhân Dân (2011). "Pink lotus leads vote for Vietnam's national flower". Nhân Dân.


  • Ha, K. Oanh; Giang, Nguyen Kieu; Denslow, Neil (2012). "Vietnam Air Aims to Win Southeast Asia's No. 2 Title by 2020". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 30 June 2013.


  • The Telegraph (2012). "Vietnam begins naval exercises with the US". The Daily Telegraph.


  • MacLeod, Calum (2012). "Fifty years later, U.S., Vietnam deal with Agent Orange". USA Today.


  • Pham, Hiep (2012). "Government's student loan scheme inadequate to ensure access". University World News.


  • Phuong, Le (2012). "Vietnam's cultural integration seen by researchers". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Cham, Tran (2012). "China continues its plot in the East Sea". VNE. Vietnam Net.


  • Tuổi Trẻ News (2012). "Vietnam to be listed top economies by 2050: HSBC". Tuổi Trẻ. Archived from the original on 16 January 2012.


  • UPI.com (2013). "Oil production starts offshore Vietnam". United Press International.


  • Summers, Chris (2014). "How Vietnam became a coffee giant". BBC News.


  • Haberman, Clyde (12 May 2014). "Agent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans". The New York Times.


  • Constitution of Vietnam (2014). "The constitution of the socialist republic of Viet Nam". XIIIth National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Việt Nam News.


  • Batruny, Joe (2014). "20 Vietnamese dishes and drinks you need to try". Matador Network.


  • Le, Pha (2014). "Marble Mounts – The 'rockery' masterpiece in the heart of Da Nang". Vietnam Net.


  • Yan News (2014). "Nhóm nhạc Hàn Quốc tiết lộ lý do hợp tác cùng Thanh Bùi" [Korean music group revealed the reason for co-operation with Thanh Bùi] (in Vietnamese). Yan.vn.


  • Norton, Barley (2015). "Ca Trù Singing in Vietnam". Smithsonian Folkways Magazine.


  • Minh Do, Anh (2015). "Vietnam's chat app Zalo challenges Facebook with 30 million registered users". Tech in Asia.


  • Sputnik News (2015). "Russia, Vietnam WIll Hold 1st Joint Drills on Vietnamese Territory in 2016". Sputnik News.


  • Thanh Niên (2015). "Horrific photos recall Vietnamese Famine of 1945". Vo An Ninh. Thanh Niên.


  • The Japan Times (2015). "Japan defense vessel to stop at Vietnam naval base in South China Sea". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times.


  • Vietnam Net (2015). "Rare photos of Vietnam's famine in 1945". Vo An Ninh. Vietnam Net.


  • Agence France-Presse (2016). "The US is helping to clean up Agent Orange residue, 50 years since the Vietnam War". Agence France-Presse. TheJournal.ie.


  • Sims, Alexandra (2016). "Rio 2016: Vietnam wins first ever Olympic gold medal". The Independent.


  • Duy, Dinh (2016). "The Revival of Boléro in Vietnam". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018. (Subscription required (help)).


  • McNeil Jr., Donald G. (2016). "Vietnam's Battle With Tuberculosis". The New York Times.


  • Lyimo, Henry (2016). "Africa: Lessons From Vietnam's March to Progress". AllAfrica.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2018.


  • Hirano, Ko (2016). "Japanese language studies taking root in Vietnam elementary schools". The Japan Times Online. The Japan Times.


  • Anh, Lan (2016a). "Ba Be, the biggest mountain lake in Vietnam". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Anh, Lan (2016b). "Vietnamese family reunion during Tet". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Nguyen, Mai; Binh Minh, Ho; Pham, My; Burmistrova, Svetlana; et al. (2016). "Vietnam abandons plan for first nuclear power plants". Reuters.


  • Cerre, Mike (2016). "Agent Orange's legacy continues to haunt Vietnam and Veterans". KABC-TV.


  • Le, Pha (2016). "Top national parks in Vietnam". Vietnam Net.


  • Tiezzi, Shannon (2016). "It's Official: Formosa Subsidiary Caused Mass Fish Deaths in Vietnam". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019. (Subscription required (help)).


  • Yan, Sophia (2016). "Vietnam's defense spending is $5 billion and rising fast". CNNMoney.


  • Vietnam Net (2016a). "Tourism contributes significantly to Vietnam's economy". Vietnam News Agency. Vietnam Net.


  • Vietnam Net (2016b). "Decree on university autonomy in final stages". VN Economic Times. Vietnam Net.


  • Van Thanh, Vo (2016). "Vietnam draws up danger-zone map of unexploded bombs". VnExpress.


  • Việt Nam News (2016). "Seismologists predict potential earthquakes". Việt Nam News.


  • Voice of Vietnam (2016). "Vietnam joins int'l naval exercise in Brunei and Singapore". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Buleen, Chad (2017). "Average Temperature in Vietnam". USA Today.


  • FourFourTwo (2017). "The time has come for Vietnam to turn beautiful football into real success". FourFourTwo.


  • Clark, Helen; Miller, Karryn (2017). "Vietnamese food: 40 delicious dishes you'll love". CNN Travel.


  • Raslan, Karim (2017). "How Vietnam's answer to Whatsapp, Zalo, began with a hack". South China Morning Post.


  • Chi, Kim (2017). "Vietnam builds north-south highway, but not a railway". Vietnam Net.


  • Tatarski, Michael (2017). "Vietnam's tale of two metros, one built by the Japanese and the other by the Chinese". South China Morning Post.


  • Dall, Nick (2017). "How Vietnam learned to stop poaching and love its beasts". Ozy.


  • Nghia, Son; Luan, Nguyen (2017). "Unique Fighting-Cock Martial Arts". Báo Ảnh Việt Nam.


  • Mai, Thanh (2017). "Vietnam remains world's No 1 exporter of cashews". Vietnam Net.


  • Williams, Vicki (2017). "Why a Vietnamese food journey is sure to tantalise diners from north to south". South China Morning Post.


  • Vietnam Net (2017a). "Top 15 tourist attractions in Vietnam". Zing/Voice of Vietnam. Vietnam Net.


  • Vietnam Net (2017b). "Bird watching in Thung Nham bird sanctuary". Hanoi Tour/VNN. Vietnam Net.


  • Tao, Zhang (2017). "Deadly relics: "Mine village" on China-Vietnam border". China Military Online.


  • Rick, August (2018). "How Vietnamese Soccer Upset The Odds That China Is Banking On". Forbes.


  • BBC News (2018). "Vietnamese capital Hanoi asks people not to eat dog meat". BBC News.


  • Loan, Doan (2018). "Vietnam's 2019 holiday plan includes 9-day Tet break". VnExpress.


  • Quốc Hoàng, Giang (2018). "Ji Yeon và Soobin lần đầu song ca trong đêm nhạc Việt - Hàn tại TP.HCM" [Ji Yeon and Soobin first duet in the night of Vietnamese-Korean music in Ho Chi Minh City] (in Vietnamese). Zing.vn.


  • Dam-young, Hong (2018). "S.M. Entertainment to hold K-pop auditions in 10 countries". The Korea Herald/Asia News Network. The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019.


  • Phương, Lan (2018). "Jiyeon (T-ara) chủ động diễn cảnh tình cảm với Soobin Hoàng Sơn" [Jiyeon (T-ara) took the initiative to act out a love scene with Soobin Hoàng Sơn] (in Vietnamese). Zing.vn.


  • Pike, Matthew (2018). "11 Traditional Vietnamese Tết Dishes". Culture Trip.


  • Quy, Nguyen (2018). "Three Vietnam hotspots among 100 most visited cities". VnExpress.


  • NHK World-Japan (2018). "Japan, Vietnam to launch dioxin cleanup project". NHK World-Japan.


  • Nikkei Asian Review (2018). "Vietnam's Agent Orange cleanup enlists Japanese tech". Nikkei Asian Review.


  • Terzian, Peter (2018). "The World's Top 15 Cities". Travel + Leisure.


  • Chin, Stephen (2018). "Vietnam plays catch up with high speed rail". The ASEAN Post.


  • Stewart, Phil (2018). "U.S. prepares for biggest-ever Agent Orange cleanup in Vietnam". Reuters.


  • The Economic Times (2018). "Indian, Vietnamese armies hold first military exercise". The Economic Times.


  • The Nation (2018). "Major Vietnam high speed railway to be elevated, tunnelled: draft report". Việt Nam News/Asia News Network. The Nation (Thailand).


  • The Saigon Times Daily (2018). "Wild celebrations in Hanoi as Vietnam win regional title". The Saigon Times Daily.


  • Brown, Vanessa (2018). "Dark side of Vietnam reveals cost of war". news.com.au.


  • Việt Nam News (2018a). "Monsanto court ruling bolsters the hope for millions of Vietnamese Agent Orange victims". Việt Nam News.


  • Việt Nam News (2018b). "US continues to be key export market for Việt Nam". Việt Nam News.


  • Việt Nam News (2018c). "Water industry needs smart tech". Việt Nam News.


  • Việt Nam News (2018d). "Water quality inspections to be held nationwide". Việt Nam News.


  • Vietnam Net (2018a). "Northern mountain frozen as temperatures drop". Dân Trí News. Vietnam Net.


  • Vietnam Net (2018b). "$58b for North-South high speed train: consultants". VNS. Vietnam Net.


  • Voice of Vietnam (2018a). "Vietnam celebrates International Women's Day". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Voice of Vietnam (2018b). "Chief of General Staff of Lao People's Army visits Vietnam". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Voice of Vietnam (2018c). "Vietnam's pepper industry about to burst". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Voice of Vietnam (2018d). "Vietnam's folk music treasure promoted". Voice of Vietnam.


  • Yan; Jun, Tao; Long, Bui (2018). "Feature: Football mania spreads after Vietnam makes history at Asiad". Xinhua News Agency.


  • Gomes, Alaric (2019). "Asian Cup: Vietnam continue to chase their dream with quarters berth". Gulf News.


  • Nikkei Asian Review. "Petrovietnam Gas JSC". Nikkei Asian Review.


  • The Telegraph. "In pictures: Inside Hang Son Doong, the world's largest caves in Vietnam". The Daily Telegraph.


Websites





  • Sagan, Ginetta; Denny, Stephen (1982). "Re-education in unliberated Vietnam: Loneliness, Suffering and Death". The Indochina Newsletter. University of California, Berkeley.


  • UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1994). "Ha Long Bay". World Heritage Convention. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018.


  • LM Report (2000). "Denmark Mine Removal Action Funding [Table 1. Governmental donations to mine action in calendar year 1999]". International Campaign to Ban Landmines.


  • World Bank (2002). "Issues and Dynamics: Urban Systems in Developing East Asia" (PDF). Urbanization Dynamics and Policy Frameworks in Developing East Asia, East Asia Infrastructure Department. World Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2019.


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  • Communist Party of Vietnam (2004). "Dân tộc Kinh" (in Vietnamese). Communist Party of Vietnam. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016.


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  • Berkman Klein Center (2006). "OpenNet Initiative Vietnam Report: University Research Team Finds an Increase in Internet Censorship in Vietnam". Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society.


  • Bich Loan, Hoang Thi (2007). "Consistently pursuing the socialist orientation in developing the market economy in Vietnam". Ministry of Culture and Information (Vietnam). Communist Review. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011.


  • Vu, Tuong (2007). "Newly released documents on the land reform". Naval Postgraduate School. University of Washington Libraries. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011.


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  • Le, Thomas D. (2008). "Vietnamese Poetry". Le World. Archived from the original on 15 September 2009.


  • McKinney, Brennan (2009). "The Human Migration: Homo Erectus and the Ice Age". Yahoo! Voices. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013.


  • South East Asia Iron and Steel Institute (2009). "Japan-Vietnam alliance to advise high-speed railway project". Thanh Niên. South East Asia Iron and Steel Institute.


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  • CNRS (2010). "2010 Fields Medal awarded to mathematician Ngô Bao Châu". Centre national de la recherche scientifique. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.


  • Intellasia (2010). "Huge hydro plant starts operation in Vietnam, says official". Intellasia. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011.


  • Vandemoortele, Milo; Bird, Kate (2010). "Viet Nam's Progress on Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: Impressive improvements". Development Progress Stories. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 – via Overseas Development Institute.


  • Vandemoortele, Milo (2010). "The MDG fundamentals: improving equity for development". ODI Briefing Papers. Archived from the original on 15 May 2010 – via Overseas Development Institute.


  • Karmel, Roberta S. (2010). "The Vietnamese Stock Market" (PDF). Financial Women's Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2010.


  • Koppes, Steve (2010). "Ngô Bao Châu receives Fields Medal, highest honor in mathematics". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.


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  • Bielefeldt, Heiner (2014). "Press Statement on the visit to the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief". United Nations Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 13 October 2018.


  • Hoang Vuong, Quan (2014). "Vietnam's Political Economy in Transition (1986-2016)". Stratfor.


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  • World Bank (2017). "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births)". World Bank.


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  • Index Mundi (2018). "Waterways [km]". Index Mundi.


  • Dallek, Matthew (2018). "How the Tet Offensive Shocked Americans into Questioning if the Vietnam War Could be Won". History.


  • SM Entertainment Group (2018). "SM ENTERTAINMENT Signs MOU for Strategic Alliance and Collaboration with IPP Group, Vietnam's Largest Retail & Lifestyle Company". SM Entertainment Group. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019.


  • United Nations Development Programme (2018). "Viet Nam: Mine Action Project launched with support from Korea". United Nations Development Programme.


  • University of Technology Sydney (2018). "Hundreds of Vietnamese children access safe water". University of Technology Sydney. Archived from the original on 11 January 2019.


  • Vietnam News Agency (2018). "China tops Vietnam's list of importers". VEN.vn.


  • World Bank (2018a). "Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49)". World Bank.


  • World Bank (2018b). "Urban population (% of total)". World Bank.


  • Agent Orange Record. "Dealing With the Damage". Agent Orange Record. Archived from the original on 11 October 2018.


  • Cultural Orientation Resource Centre. "The Montagnards – Culture Profile [Language and Literacy]" (PDF). Cultural Orientation Resource Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2018.


  • Embassy of Vietnam in USA. "Government Structure". Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the United States of America.


  • International Monetary Fund. "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2018". International Monetary Fund.


  • International Olympic Committee (22 August 2018). "Vietnam". International Olympic Committee.


  • Montagnard Human Rights Organisation. "Under South Vietnam Rule (1955–1975)". Montagnard Human Rights Organization. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012.


  • Reporters Without Borders. "Internet Enemies [Vietnam]". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011.


  • Thi Anh, Thu Do. "Flood in Vietnam". Asian Disaster Preparedness Center. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018.


  • UNESCO Publishing. "UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030" (PDF). UNESCO.


  • UNICEF. "At a glance: Viet Nam [Statistics]". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 11 January 2008.


  • United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. "Data Query". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.


  • Vietnamese-American Association. "Lạc Long Quân & Âu Cơ" (PDF). Vietnamese-American Association of Raleigh, North Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018.


Free content




Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg This article incorporates text from a free content work. UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 713–714, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia:Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
 This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of State document "(U.S. Relations With Vietnam)".



External links




  • Vietnam profile from BBC News


  • "Vietnam". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. (CIA)


  • Vietnam from UCB Libraries GovPubs


  • Vietnam at Curlie


  • Vietnam at Encyclopædia Britannica


  • Wikimedia Atlas of Vietnam


  • Key Development Forecasts for Vietnam from International Futures

Government


  • Portal of the Government of Vietnam


  • Communist Party of Vietnam – official website (in Vietnamese)


  • National Assembly – the Vietnamese legislative body

  • General Statistics Office

  • Ministry of Foreign Affairs

  • Chief of State and Cabinet Members

Media and censorship


  • Robert N. Wilkey. "Vietnam's Antitrust Legislation and Subscription to E-ASEAN: An End to the Bamboo Firewall Over Internet Regulation?" The John Marshall Journal of Computer and Information Law. Vol. XX, No. 4. Summer 2002. Retrieved 16 February 2013.

Tourism



  • Vietnam travel guide from Wikivoyage

  • Official tourism website












Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnam&oldid=884682716"





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